Variety of Hokkien spoken in Taiwan
Taiwanese Hokkien
|
---|
|
Native to
| Taiwan
|
---|
Ethnicity
| Hoklo Taiwanese
|
---|
Native speakers
| 13.5 million (2017)
[1]
|
---|
| |
---|
Early forms
| |
---|
| Chinese characters
(
Traditional
),
Latin
(
Tai-lo
,
Pe?h-?e-j?
),
Kana
,
Bopomofo
(
Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
),
Hangul
|
---|
|
Official language in
|
Taiwan
[b]
|
---|
Regulated by
| Ministry of Education in Taiwan
|
---|
|
ISO 639-3
| nan
|
---|
Glottolog
| taib1242
Taibei Hokkien
|
---|
Linguasphere
| 79-AAA-jh
|
---|
Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010
[10]
|
This article contains
IPA
phonetic symbols.
Without proper
rendering support
, you may see
question marks, boxes, or other symbols
instead of
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.
|
Taiwanese Hokkien
(
HOK
-ee-en
,
HOH
-kee-en
;
Chinese
:
臺灣話
;
Pe?h-?e-j?
:
Tai-oan-?e
;
Tai-lo
:
Tai-uan-u?
), or simply
Taiwanese
, also known as
Taiuanoe
,
Taigi
,
Taigu
(
Chinese
:
臺語
;
Pe?h-?e-j?
/
Tai-lo
:
Tai-gi
/
Tai-gu
),
[c]
[11]
Taiwanese Minnan
(
Chinese
:
臺灣?南語
),
Hoklo
and
Holo
,
[12]
[13]
is a variety of the
Hokkien
language spoken natively by more than 70 percent of the
population of Taiwan
.
[14]
It is spoken by a significant portion of those
Taiwanese people
who are descended from
Hoklo
immigrants of
southern Fujian
.
[15]
It is one of the national
languages of Taiwan
.
Taiwanese is generally similar to Hokkien spoken in
Amoy
,
Quanzhou
, and
Zhangzhou
, as well dialectal forms used in
Southeast Asia
, such as
Singaporean Hokkien
,
Penang Hokkien
,
Philippine Hokkien
,
Medan Hokkien
, and
Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien
. It is
mutually intelligible
with the Amoy and Zhangzhou varieties at the mouth of the
Jiulong River
in mainland China, and with
Philippine Hokkien
to the south in the
Philippines
, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.
[16]
The mass popularity of
Hokkien entertainment media
from Taiwan has given
prominence
to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.
Classification
[
edit
]
Taiwanese Hokkien is a variety of
Hokkien
, a
Southern Min
language. Like many varieties of
Min Chinese
, it has distinct
literary and colloquial layers
of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal
registers
respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late
Tang dynasty
, and as such is related to
Middle Chinese
. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the
Han dynasty
.
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
Regional variations within the Taiwanese variant may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from
Quanzhou
and
Zhangzhou
, and later from
Amoy
. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from Japanese and native
Formosan languages
. Recent work by scholars such as Ekki Lu,
[21]
Toru Sakai,
[22]
and Li Khin-hoann,
[23]
based on former research by scholars such as
Ong Iok-tek
, has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the
Austronesian
and
Tai
language families; however, such claims are controversial.
The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in
Fujian
and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants.
Tale of the Lychee Mirror
, a manuscript of a series of plays published during the
Ming dynasty
in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts, such as reciting telephone numbers (see
Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters
).
[
citation needed
]
History and formation
[
edit
]
Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan
[
edit
]
During the
Yuan dynasty
,
Quanzhou
became a major international port for trade with the outside world.
[24]
From that period onwards, many people from the
Hokkien
-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations for the emigrants was the island of Taiwan (formerly Formosa), starting around 1600. They brought with their native Hokkien language with them.
During the late
Ming dynasty
, the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern
Guangdong
to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included
pirate-merchants
Pedro Yan Shiqi
and
Zheng Zhilong
. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from
Zhangzhou
, occupied
Ponkan
(modern-day
Beigang, Yunlin
) and started to develop
Tirosen
(modern-day
Chiayi
). After the death of Peter and another pirate,
Li Dan
of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the
Strait of Taiwan
. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".
[25]
In 1624, the number of Chinese on the island was about 25,000.
During the reign of
Chongzhen Emperor
(1627?1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three
taels
of silver and for each three people one ox".
[27]
Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the
Dutch Empire
, who ruled Taiwan as
Dutch Formosa
at the time.
Development and divergence
[
edit
]
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the
Tainan
and
Keelung
areas, respectively. During the 40 years of
Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan
, the Dutch recruited many Chinese from the regions around Quanzhou and
Zhangzhou
in southern Fujian to help develop Taiwan.
In the 1661
Siege of Fort Zeelandia
, Chinese general
Koxinga
, marshaling a military force composed of fellow hometown
hoklo
soldiers of Southern Fujian, expelled the Dutch and established the
Kingdom of Tungning
. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region.
Chen Yonghua
, who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from
Tong'an
county of Quanzhou Prefecture. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the
prestige variant
of Hokkien on the island at the time was the
Quanzhou dialect
.
In 1683, Chinese admiral
Shi Lang
, marshaling a military force again composed of fellow hometown
hoklo
soldiers of Southern Fujian, attacked Taiwan in the
Battle of Penghu
, ending the Tungning era and beginning
Qing dynasty rule
(until 1895).
In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the Mandarin-speaking first Imperial
High Commissioner
to Taiwan (1722),
Huang Shujing
:
In this place, the language is as
birdcall
– totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname
Liu
, they say 'Lau'; for
Chen
, 'Tan';
Zhu?ng
, 'Chng'; and
Zh?ng
is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy's surname
Wu
becomes 'Ngo?'. My surname
Huang
does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N?g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this.
(
郡中?舌鳥語,全不可曉。如:劉呼「?」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「?」。余與吳待御兩姓,吳呼作「?」,黃則無音,厄影切,更?難省。
)
?
Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait
, Volume II: "On the area around
Fort Provintia
,
Tainan
" (臺海使?錄 卷二 赤嵌筆談)
The tone of Huang's message
foretold
the uneasy relationships between different
language communities
and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.
During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from
Fujian
arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.
Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese),
battles between ethnic groups
were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between
Hakka
speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the
aborigines
, and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.
In the early 20th century, the
Hoklo people
in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from modern-day
Xiamen
,
Quanzhou
,
Zhangzhou
, and
Zhangpu
.
[
clarification needed
]
People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,
[30]
whereas people from the latter two areas (
Zhangzhou
-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.
Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual
intermingling
led to the mixture of the two
accents
. Apart from
Lukang city
and
Yilan County
, which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents, respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.
A similar phenomenon occurred in
Xiamen
(Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern
Amoy dialect
.
[32]
During the
Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan
, Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture Taiwanese
(
臺灣語
,
Taiwango
)
.
[33]
Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,
[
citation needed
]
Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese Hokkien began to
diverge
slightly.
Modern times
[
edit
]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese was more controversial than most variations of Chinese because, at one time, it marked a clear division between the
mainlanders who
arrived in 1949
and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding the Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other
varieties of Chinese
.
After the
First Sino-Japanese War
, due to military defeat to the Japanese, the
Qing dynasty
ceded
Taiwan
to Japan, causing contact with the
Hokkien
-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb a large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include
pi?n-so?
from
benjo
(
便所
, "toilet")
,
pheng
from
tsubo
(
坪
, "
pyeong
", an areal measurement)
(see also
Taiwanese units of measurement
),
ga-suh
from
gasu
(
瓦斯
, "gas")
,
o?-to?-bai
from
?tobai
(
オ?トバイ
, "autobicycle", motorcycle)
. All of these caused the Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.
During
K?minka
of the late Japanese colonial period, the
Japanese language
appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The
Second Sino-Japanese War
beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of
romanized Taiwanese
, various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught
Classical Chinese
with
literary
Southern Min pronunciation ? was closed down in 1939.
Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common
daily language
.
[36]
In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" (
?語
の
家
), which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.
[37]
After the handover of Taiwan to the
Republic of China
in 1945, there was a brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The
Chinese Civil War
resulted in another political separation when the
Kuomintang
(Chinese Nationalist Party) government
retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists
in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted Mandarin while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese
Hokkien
(e.g.
Pe?h-?e-j?
, a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.
[38]
In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese
Hokkien
or
Hakka
in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.
[39]
Only after the lifting of
martial law
in 1987 and the
mother tongue
movement in the 1990s did Taiwan finally see a true
revival
in Taiwanese Hokkien. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese Hokkien scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, however, according to census data, the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.
[34]
The history of the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and, at times, controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.
[40]
Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin,
Hakka
, and the
indigenous languages
. Others prefer the names
Southern Min
, Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in
Fujian
province in
mainland China
. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.
[
citation needed
]
In the
American Community Survey
run by the
United States Census Bureau
, Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.
[41]
Phonology
[
edit
]
Phonologically
, Hokkien is a
tonal language
with extensive
tone sandhi
rules.
Syllables
consist maximally of an initial
consonant
, a
vowel
, a final consonant, and a tone.
Consonants
[
edit
]
Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and
Cantonese
, there are no native
labiodental
phonemes (i.e.,
/
f
/
).
- Coronal affricates and fricatives become
alveolo-palatal
before
/i/
, that is,
/dzi/
,
/tsi/
,
/ts?i/
, and
/si/
are pronounced
[d?i]
,
[t?i]
,
[t??i]
, and
[?i]
.
- The consonant
/dz/
may be realized as a fricative; that is, as
[z]
in most environments and
[?]
before
/i/
.
- The
voiced
plosives (
/b/
and
/?/
) become the corresponding fricatives (
/
β
/
and
/
?
/
) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to
begadkefat
in
Hebrew
and a similar
allophony
of intervocalic
plosive consonants
and their fricatives in
Spanish
.
Vowels
[
edit
]
Taiwanese has the following
vowels
:
The vowel
⟨o⟩
is akin to a
schwa
; in contrast,
⟨
o?
⟩
(with dot) is a more
open vowel
. In addition, there are several
diphthongs
and
triphthongs
(for example,
⟨iau⟩
). The consonants
⟨m⟩
and
⟨ng⟩
can function as a
syllabic nucleus
and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or
nasal
:
⟨a⟩
is non-nasal, and
⟨aⁿ⟩
is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to
French
,
Portuguese
,
Polish
, and many other languages.
There are two pronunciations of vowel
⟨o⟩
. In the south (e.g.,
Tainan
and
Kaohsiung
) it is
[?]
; in the north (e.g.,
Taipei
) it is
[o]
. Due to the development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.
/
i
/
is a diphthong [
i
?
] before -k or -ng (POJ: ek, eng), and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [
i?
]. Similarly,
/
u
/
is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [
?
].
[42]
Tones
[
edit
]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones",
numbered
from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only five
tonal contours
. But as in other Sinitic languages, the two kinds of stopped syllables are also considered to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. Words of tone 6 merge into tone seven in most Taiwanese variants, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of
Middle Chinese
:
Taiwanese tones
Tone
number
|
Name
|
POJ
accent
|
Pitch in
Taipei
|
Description
|
Pitch in
Tainan
|
Description
|
1
|
Yin Level (陰平)
|
a
|
/
a
/
=
/
a?
/
(55)
|
High
|
/
a
/
=
/
a?
/
(44)
|
High
|
2 (6)
|
Rising (上聲)
|
a
|
/a/ =
/
a??
/
(51)
|
Falling
|
/a/ =
/
a??
/
(53)
|
High Falling
|
3
|
Yin Departing (陰去)
|
a
|
/
a
/
=
/
a??
/
to
/
??
/
(21)
|
Low Falling
|
/
a
/
=
/
a?
/
(11)
|
Low
|
4
|
Yin Entering (陰入)
|
ah
|
/
??
/
=
/a???/
(32)
|
Mid Stopped
|
/
a?
/
=
/a???/
(21)
|
Low Stopped
|
5
|
Yang Level (陽平)
|
a
|
/?/=
/a??
~
a??/
(24)
|
Rising
|
/?/ =
/
a??
/
(25)
|
Rising
|
7
|
Yang Departing (陽去)
|
?
|
/
?
/
=
/
a?
/
(33)
|
Mid
|
/
?
/
=
/
a?
/
(22)
|
Mid
|
8
|
Yang Entering (陽入)
|
a?h
|
/
a?
/
=
/
a??
/
(4)
|
High Stopped
|
/
a?
/
=
/
a??
/
(5)
|
High Stopped
|
Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫
saⁿ, 短 te, ?, kho?, 闊 khoah, 人 lang, 矮 e, 鼻 ph?ⁿ, 直 ti?t
. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of
矮 e
as an example for tone 6. Despite alternations in its vowel, the word
矮
belongs in tone 2 in all Southern Min varieties, including those distinguishing tone 6 from other tones.)
See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in
Chiung (2003)
, which challenges these notions.
For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant
⟨p⟩
,
⟨t⟩
, or
⟨k⟩
may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants
⟨m⟩
,
⟨n⟩
, and
⟨ng⟩
, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as
⟨siahⁿ⟩
, as long as there is no final consonant other than
⟨h⟩
.
In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the
tone sandhi
rules of tone number 4.
Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens (--a) or a point (·a) before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark
enclitics
denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia?h-pa--b?e?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?'. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the
⟨--⟩
maintains its original tone.
Syllabic structure
[
edit
]
A
syllable
requires a vowel (or diphthong or
triphthong
) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants
⟨p, t, k⟩
and
⟨m, n, ng⟩
(and some consider
⟨h⟩
) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as
⟨ngiau⟩
("(to) tickle") and
⟨thng⟩
("soup").
Tone sandhi
[
edit
]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive
tone sandhi
(tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.
[44]
What an '
utterance
' (or '
intonational phrase
') is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:
[45]
The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
- The final syllable in a
sentence
,
noun
(including single syllable nouns, but not
pronouns
), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial
preposition
(i.e., on, under), or
question word
(i.e., who, what, how).
- The syllable immediately preceding the
possessive particle
的 (e) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ong--sian-siⁿ)
- Some common
aspect
markers: 了 (liau), 好 (ho), 完 (oan), 煞 (soah)
Normal tone sandhi
[
edit
]
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
- If the original tone number is
5
, pronounce it as tone number
3
(
Quanzhou
/Taipei speech) or
7
(
Zhangzhou
/Tainan speech).
- If the original tone number is
7
, pronounce it as tone number
3
.
- If the original tone number is
3
, pronounce it as tone number
2
.
- If the original tone number is
2
, pronounce it as tone number
1
.
- If the original tone number is
1
, pronounce it as tone number
7
.
- If the original tone number is
8
and the final consonant is not
h
(that is, it is
p
,
t
, or
k
), pronounce it as tone number
4
.
- If the original tone number is
4
and the final consonant is not
h
(that is, it is
p
,
t
, or
k
), pronounce it as tone number
8
.
- If the original tone number is
8
and the final consonant is
h
, pronounce it as tone number
3
.
- If the original tone number is
4
and the final consonant is
h
, pronounce it as tone number
2
.
An example of the normal tone sandhi rule is:
- 老老 lao lao: 7 + 7 = 7 + 3
- 拍拍 phah phah: 4 + 4 = 2 + 4
Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
Tone
number
|
Sandhi
|
Taipei
|
Tainan
|
5
|
tang
5
?
3
/ tang
5
?
7
|
[taŋ????]
|
[taŋ???]
|
7
|
tang
7
?
3
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ??]
|
3
|
tang
3
?
2
|
[taŋ????]
|
[taŋ???]
|
2
|
tang
2
?
1
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ???]
|
1
|
tang
1
?
7
|
[taŋ??]
|
[taŋ??]
|
8
|
tak
8
?
4
|
[tak???]
|
[tak???]
|
tah
8
?
3
|
[ta????]
|
[ta???]
|
4
|
tak
4
?
8
|
[tak???]
|
[tak???]
|
tah
4
?
2
|
[ta?????]
|
[ta?????]
|
Double tone sandhi
[
edit
]
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in
-h
, and include the words 欲 (beh), ? (kah), 閣 (koh), 才 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khi. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number
1
.
Double tone sandhi (IPA)
Tone
number
|
Sandhi
|
Taipei
|
Tainan
|
4
|
kah⁴?¹
|
[ka????]
|
[ka????]
|
3
|
khi³?¹
|
[k?i???]
|
[k?i??]
|
Before the -a suffix
[
edit
]
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.
[46]
In a noun with the noun
suffix
'
仔
' (
a
), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
- If the original tone number is
5
, pronounce it as tone number
7
.
- If the original tone number is
7
, pronounce it as tone number
7
.
- If the original tone number is
2
or
3
, pronounce it as tone number
1
.
- If the original tone number is
1
, pronounce it as tone number
7
.(same as normal)
- If the original tone number is
8
and final consonant is not
h
(that is, it is
p
,
t
, or
k
), pronounce it as tone number
4
.(same as normal)
- If the original tone number is
4
and final consonant is not
h
(that is, it is
p
,
t
, or
k
), pronounce it as tone number
8
.(same as normal)
- If the original tone number is
8
and final consonant is
h
, pronounce it as tone number
7
.
- If the original tone number is
4
and final consonant is
h
, pronounce it as tone number
1
. (same as double)
Tone sandhi before -a (IPA)
Tone
number
|
Sandhi
|
Taipei
|
Tainan
|
5
|
tang???
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ???]
|
7
|
tang???
|
[taŋ??]
|
[taŋ??]
|
3
|
tang³?¹
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ??]
|
2
|
tang²?¹
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ???]
|
1
|
tang¹??
|
[taŋ??]
|
[taŋ??]
|
8
|
tak??⁴
|
[tak???]
|
[tak???]
|
tah???
|
[ta???]
|
[ta???]
|
4
|
tak⁴??
|
[tak???]
|
[tak???]
|
tah⁴?¹
|
[ta????]
|
[ta????]
|
In triplicated adjectives
[
edit
]
Finally, in the case of a single-syllable adjective
triplication
(for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
- If the original tone number is
5
, pronounce it as tone number
5
.
- If the original tone number is
7
, pronounce it as tone number
1
.
- If the original tone number is
3
, pronounce it as tone number
2
(same as normal).
- If the original tone number is
2
, pronounce it as tone number
1
(same as normal).
- If the original tone number is
1
, pronounce it as tone number
5
.
- If the original tone number is
8
and the final consonant is not
h
(that is, it is
p
,
t
, or
k
), pronounce it as tone number
4
(same as normal).
- If the original tone number is
4
and the final consonant is not
h
(that is, it is
p
,
t
, or
k
), pronounce it as tone number
8
(same as normal).
- If the original tone number is
8
and the final consonant is
h
, pronounce it as tone number
5
.
- If the original tone number is
4
and the final consonant is
h
, pronounce it as tone number
2
(same as normal).
Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
Tone
number
|
Sandhi
|
Taipei
|
Tainan
|
5
|
tang???
|
[taŋ????]
|
[taŋ????]
|
7
|
tang??¹
|
[taŋ??]
|
[taŋ??]
|
3
|
tang³?²
|
[taŋ????]
|
[taŋ???]
|
2
|
tang²?¹
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ???]
|
1
|
tang¹??
|
[taŋ???]
|
[taŋ???]
|
8
|
tak??⁴
|
[tak???]
|
[tak???]
|
tah???
|
[ta????]
|
[ta????]
|
4
|
tak⁴??
|
[tak???]
|
[tak???]
|
tah⁴?²
|
[ta?????]
|
[ta?????]
|
See
Tiuⁿ (2001)
,
Chiung (2003)
and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; T?ⁿ Liong-ui)
[47]
for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.
Watch this
video
by 阿勇台語 (Aiong Taigi) for a more in depth look at the triplicated tone sandhi with examples.
Lexicon
[
edit
]
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese
words
have
cognates
in other Sinitic languages.
False friends
do exist; for example,
chau
(
走
) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the
Mandarin
cognate,
z?u
, means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different
lexical categories
; for example, the
morpheme
ph?ⁿ
(
鼻
) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin
bi
) but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).
Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples:
lang
(
人
or
?
, person, concrete) vs.
jin
(人, person, abstract);
cha-bo?
(
?某
, woman) vs.
lu-jin
(女人, woman, literary). Unlike the
English Germanic/Latin contrast
, however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.
Extensive contact with the
Japanese language
has left a legacy of Japanese
loanwords
, with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's
Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan
.
[48]
Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are:
o?-to?-bai
from
?tobai
(
オ?トバイ
, "autobike"/motorcycle)
and
phang
from
pan
(
パン
, "
bread
", itself a loanword from
Portuguese
)
.
Grammatical particles
borrowed from Japanese, notably
te?k
from
teki
(
的
)
and
ka
from
ka
(
か
)
, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.
Whereas Mandarin attaches a syllabic suffix to the singular pronoun to make a
collective
form, Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through
nasalization
. For example,
i
(he/she/it) and
goa
(I) become
in
(they) and
goan
(we), respectively. The
-n
thus represents a subsyllabic
morpheme
. Like all other
varieties of Chinese
, Taiwanese does not have true grammatical
plurals
.
Unlike English, Taiwanese has two
first-person plural
pronouns. This distinction is called
inclusive
, which includes the
addressee
, and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus,
goan
means
we excluding you
, while
lan
means
we including you
(similar to
pluralis auctoris
). The inclusive
lan
may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do
you
live?".
Syntax
[
edit
]
An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".
The
syntax
of Taiwanese is similar to southern Sinitic languages such as
Hakka
and
Yue
. The
subject?verb?object
sequence is typical as in, for example,
Mandarin
, but
subject?object?verb
or the
passive voice
(with the sequence
object?subject?verb
) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are:
goa
('I' or 'me'),
ph?
('to hold'),
li
('you').
- Subject?verb?object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be:
Goa ph? li.
('I hold you.')
- Subject?
k?
?object?verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is
Goa k? li ph?
, with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
- Object
h??
subject?verb (the passive voice): Then,
Li h?? goa ph?
means the same thing but in the
passive voice
, with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.
With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed:
Goa h?? li chui lim
('I give water for you to drink':
chui
means 'water';
lim
is 'to drink').
This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the
syntax
of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.
Scripts and orthographies
[
edit
]
Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in
Classical Chinese
,
although songbooks using
Han characters
are attested from the 1820s.
Among many systems of writing Taiwanese using Latin characters, the most used is called
Pe?h-?e-j?
(POJ) and was developed in the 19th century, while the
Taiwanese Romanization System
(Tai-lo) has been officially promoted since 2006 by Taiwan's
Ministry of Education
. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in Mandarin, though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.
Han characters
[
edit
]
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the
script
called
Han characters
as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanese and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the
vulgar slang
'khoaⁿ saⁿ-siau' (
看
三小
, substituted for the etymologically correct
看
??
, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?') has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.
In 2007, the
Ministry of Education
in Taiwan published the first list of
Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters
, a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.
[51]
In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words. With increasing literacy in Taiwanese, there are currently more Taiwanese online bloggers who write Taiwanese online using these standardized Chinese characters. Han characters are also used by Taiwan's Hokkien literary circle for Hokkien poets and writers to write literature or poetry in Taiwanese.
Orthography in Latin characters
[
edit
]
There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being
Pe?h-?e-j?
(POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century.
Taiwanese Romanization System
(Tai-oan lo-ma-j?, Tai-lo) and
Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet
(TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include
Daighi tongiong pingim
(DT),
Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv
(GDT),
Modern Literal Taiwanese
(MLT),
Simplified MLT
(SMLT),
Phofsit Daibuun
(PSDB). The last four employ
tonal
spelling
to indicate tone without use of
diacritic
symbols, but letters instead.
In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
- a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o? p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete
⟨ts⟩
, which was used to represent the modern
⟨ch⟩
at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol
⟨ⁿ⟩
(superscript
⟨n⟩
; the uppercase form
⟨
N
⟩
is sometimes used in
all caps
texts,
[52]
such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal
diacritics
.
POJ was developed first by
Presbyterian
missionaries
and later by the indigenous
Presbyterian Church in Taiwan
; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.
In 2006, the
National Languages Committee
(Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed its
Taiwanese Romanization System
(Tai-oan Lo-ma-j? pheng-im, Tai-Lo). This alphabet reconciles two orthographies, TLPA and POJ.
[53]
The changes for the consonants involved using
⟨ts⟩
for POJ's
⟨ch⟩
(reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and
⟨tsh⟩
for
⟨chh⟩
. For the vowels,
⟨o?⟩
could optionally be represented as
⟨oo⟩
. The nasal mark
⟨ⁿ⟩
could also be represented optionally as
⟨nn⟩
. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.
[54]
It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.
Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo
[
edit
]
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the
Japanese kana
during
Japanese rule
. The Kuomintang government also tried to introduce an orthography in
bopomofo
.
Comparison of orthographies
[
edit
]
Here the different orthographies are compared:
Vowels
IPA
|
a
|
ap
|
at
|
ak
|
a?
|
a
|
?
|
?k
|
??
|
?
|
o
|
e
|
?
|
i
|
i?n
|
i?ŋ
|
Pe?h-?e-j?
|
a
|
ap
|
at
|
ak
|
ah
|
aⁿ
|
o?
|
ok
|
oⁿ
|
o
|
o
|
e
|
eⁿ
|
i
|
ian
|
eng
|
Revised
TLPA
|
a
|
ap
|
at
|
ak
|
ah
|
aN
|
oo
|
ok
|
ooN
|
o
|
o
|
e
|
eN
|
i
|
ian
|
ing
|
TLPA
|
a
|
ap
|
at
|
ak
|
ah
|
ann
|
oo
|
ok
|
oonn
|
o
|
o
|
e
|
enn
|
i
|
ian
|
ing
|
BP
|
a
|
ap
|
at
|
ak
|
ah
|
na
|
oo
|
ok
|
noo
|
o
|
o
|
e
|
ne
|
i
|
ian
|
ing
|
MLT
|
a
|
ab/ap
|
ad/at
|
ag/ak
|
aq/ah
|
va
|
o
|
og/ok
|
vo
|
ø
|
ø
|
e
|
ve
|
i
|
ien
|
eng
|
DT
|
a
|
?p/ap
|
?t/at
|
?k/ak
|
?h/ah
|
ann/aⁿ
|
o
|
ok
|
onn/oⁿ
|
or
|
or
|
e
|
enn/eⁿ
|
i
|
ian/en
|
ing
|
Taiwanese kana
|
アア
|
ア??
|
アッ
|
ア?
|
アァ
|
アア
|
オオ
|
オ?
|
オオ
|
オオ
|
ヲヲ
|
エエ
|
エエ
|
イイ
|
イェヌ
|
イェン
|
Extended
bopomofo
|
?
|
??
|
??
|
??
|
??
|
?
|
?
|
??
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
??
|
??
|
Tai-lo
|
a
|
ap
|
at
|
ak
|
ah
|
ann
|
oo
|
ok
|
onn
|
o
|
o
|
e
|
enn
|
i
|
ian
|
ing
|
Example (
traditional Chinese
)
|
亞
洲
|
壓
力
|
警
察
|
沃
水
|
牛
肉
|
三
十
|
烏
色
|
中
國
|
|
澳
洲
|
澳
洲
|
下
?
|
|
醫
學
|
鉛
筆
|
英
國
|
Example (
simplified Chinese
)
|
?
洲
|
?
力
|
警
察
|
沃
水
|
牛
肉
|
三
十
|
?
色
|
中
?
|
|
澳
洲
|
澳
洲
|
下
?
|
|
?
?
|
?
?
|
英
?
|
Vowels
IPA
|
i?k
|
?
|
ai
|
a?
|
au
|
am
|
?m
|
m?
|
?ŋ
|
ŋ?
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
uai
|
uan
|
?
|
(i)
?
|
Pe?h-?e-j?
|
ek
|
iⁿ
|
ai
|
aiⁿ
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
oa
|
oe
|
oai
|
oan
|
i
|
(i)uⁿ
|
Revised
TLPA
|
ik
|
iN
|
ai
|
aiN
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
uai
|
uan
|
ir
|
(i)uN
|
TLPA
|
ik
|
inn
|
ai
|
ainn
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
uai
|
uan
|
ir
|
(i)unn
|
BP
|
ik
|
ni
|
ai
|
nai
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
uai
|
uan
|
i
|
n(i)u
|
MLT
|
eg/ek
|
vi
|
ai
|
vai
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
oa
|
oe
|
oai
|
oan
|
i
|
v(i)u
|
DT
|
ik
|
inn/iⁿ
|
ai
|
ainn/aiⁿ
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
uai
|
uan
|
i
|
(i)unn/uⁿ
|
Taiwanese kana
|
イェ?
|
イイ
|
アイ
|
アイ
|
アウ
|
アム
|
オム
|
ム
|
オン
|
ン
|
ウウ
|
ヲア
|
ヲエ
|
ヲァイ
|
ヲァヌ
|
ウウ
|
ウウ
|
Extended
bopomofo
|
??
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
??
|
??
|
??
|
??
|
?
|
?
|
Tai-lo
|
ik
|
inn
|
ai
|
ainn
|
au
|
am
|
om
|
m
|
ong
|
ng
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
uai
|
uan
|
ir
|
(i)unn
|
Example (
traditional Chinese
)
|
?
譯
|
病
院
|
愛
情
|
|
歐
洲
|
暗
時
|
|
阿
姆
|
王
梨
|
黃
色
|
有
無
|
歌
曲
|
講
話
|
奇
怪
|
人
員
|
?
肉
|
?
水
|
Example (
simplified Chinese
)
|
?
?
|
病
院
|
?
情
|
|
?
洲
|
暗
?
|
|
阿
姆
|
王
梨
|
?
色
|
有
无
|
歌
曲
|
?
?
|
奇
怪
|
人
?
|
猪
肉
|
?
水
|
Consonants
IPA
|
p
|
b
|
p?
|
m
|
t
|
t?
|
n
|
nŋ
|
l
|
k
|
?
|
k?
|
h
|
t?i
|
?i
|
t??i
|
?i
|
ts
|
dz
|
ts?
|
s
|
Pe?h-?e-j?
|
p
|
b
|
ph
|
m
|
t
|
th
|
n
|
nng
|
l
|
k
|
g
|
kh
|
h
|
chi
|
ji
|
chhi
|
si
|
ch
|
j
|
chh
|
s
|
Revised
TLPA
|
p
|
b
|
ph
|
m
|
t
|
th
|
n
|
nng
|
l
|
k
|
g
|
kh
|
h
|
zi
|
ji
|
ci
|
si
|
z
|
j
|
c
|
s
|
TLPA
|
p
|
b
|
ph
|
m
|
t
|
th
|
n
|
nng
|
l
|
k
|
g
|
kh
|
h
|
zi
|
ji
|
ci
|
si
|
z
|
j
|
c
|
s
|
BP
|
b
|
bb
|
p
|
bb
|
d
|
t
|
n
|
lng
|
l
|
g
|
gg
|
k
|
h
|
zi
|
li
|
ci
|
si
|
z
|
l
|
c
|
s
|
MLT
|
p
|
b
|
ph
|
m
|
t
|
th
|
n
|
nng
|
l
|
k
|
g
|
kh
|
h
|
ci
|
ji
|
chi
|
si
|
z
|
j
|
zh
|
s
|
DT
|
b
|
bh
|
p
|
m
|
d
|
t
|
n
|
nng
|
l
|
g
|
gh
|
k
|
h
|
zi
|
r
|
ci
|
si
|
z
|
r
|
c
|
s
|
Taiwanese kana
|
パア
|
バア
|
パ?ア
|
マア
|
タア
|
タ?ア
|
ナア
|
ヌン
|
ラア
|
カア
|
ガア
|
カ?ア
|
ハア
|
チイ
|
ジイ
|
チ?イ
|
シイ
|
サ
ア
|
ザア
|
サ?
ア
|
サア
|
Extended
bopomofo
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
??
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
Tai-lo
|
p
|
b
|
ph
|
m
|
t
|
th
|
n
|
nng
|
l
|
k
|
g
|
kh
|
h
|
tsi
|
ji
|
tshi
|
si
|
ts
|
j
|
tsh
|
s
|
Example (
traditional Chinese
)
|
報
紙
|
?
南
|
普
通
|
請
問
|
?
肉
|
普
通
|
過
年
|
?
卵
|
樂
觀
|
價
?
|
牛
?
|
客
廳
|
煩
惱
|
支
持
|
漢
字
|
支
持
|
是
否
|
報
紙
|
熱
天
|
參
加
|
司
法
|
Example (
simplified Chinese
)
|
?
?
|
?
南
|
普
通
|
?
?
|
猪
肉
|
普
通
|
?
年
|
?
卵
|
?
?
|
价
?
|
牛
?
|
客
?
|
?
?
|
支
持
|
?
字
|
支
持
|
是
否
|
?
?
|
?
天
|
?
加
|
司
法
|
Tones
Tone name
|
Yin level
陰平(1)
|
Yin rising
陰上(2)
|
Yin departing
陰去(3)
|
Yin entering
陰入(4)
|
Yang level
陽平(5)
|
Yang rising
陽上(6)
|
Yang departing
陽去(7)
|
Yang entering
陽入(8)
|
High rising
(9)
|
Neutral tone
(0)
|
IPA
|
a?
|
a??
|
a??
|
ap?
at?
ak?
a??
|
a??
|
|
a?
|
ap?
at?
ak?
a??
|
a??
|
a?
|
Pe?h-?e-j?
|
a
|
a
|
a
|
ap
at
ak
ah
|
a
|
|
?
|
a?p
a?t
a?k
a?h
|
|
--a
|
TLPA
(and Revised
TLPA
)
|
a1
|
a2
|
a3
|
ap4
at4
ak4
ah4
|
a5
|
a6
|
a7
|
ap8
at8
ak8
ah8
|
a9
|
a0
|
BP
|
?
|
?
|
a
|
?p
?t
?k
?h
|
a
|
|
a
|
ap
at
ak
ah
|
|
|
MLT
|
af
|
ar
|
ax
|
ab
ad
ag
aq
|
aa
|
aar
|
a
|
ap
at
ak
ah
|
|
~a
|
DT
|
a
|
a
|
a
|
?p
?t
?k
?h
|
?
|
|
?
|
ap
at
ak
ah
|
a
|
a
|
Taiwanese kana
(normal vowels)
|
アア
|
アア
|
アア
|
ア??
アッ
ア?
アァ
|
アア
|
|
アア
|
ア??
アッ
ア?
アァ
|
|
|
Taiwanese kana
(nasal vowels)
|
アア
|
アア
|
アア
|
ア??
アッ
ア?
アァ
|
アア
|
|
アア
|
ア??
アッ
ア?
アァ
|
|
|
Extended
bopomofo
|
?
|
??
|
??
|
??
??
??
??
|
??
|
|
??
|
??˙
??˙
??˙
??˙
|
|
|
Tai-lo
|
a
|
a
|
a
|
ah
|
a
|
?
|
?
|
a?h
|
a?
|
--ah
|
Example
(
traditional Chinese
)
|
公
司
|
報
紙
|
興
趣
|
血
壓
警
察
中
國
牛
肉
|
人
員
|
|
草
地
|
配
合
法
律
文
學
歇
熱
|
昨昏
|
入
去
|
Example
(
simplified Chinese
)
|
公
司
|
?
?
|
?
趣
|
血
?
警
察
中
?
牛
肉
|
人
?
|
|
草
地
|
配
合
法
律
文
?
歇
?
|
昨昏
|
入
去
|
Computing
[
edit
]
Many
keyboard layouts
and
input methods
for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free of charge, and some are commercial.
The
Min Nan
dialect group is registered per
RFC
3066
as
zh-min-nan
.
[55]
Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.
When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in
Cantonese
,
Vietnamese ch? nom
,
Korean hanja
and
Japanese kanji
. These are usually not encoded in
Unicode
(or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646:
Universal Character Set
), thus creating problems in computer processing.
All Latin characters required by Pe?h-?e-j? can be represented using
Unicode
(or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646:
Universal character set
), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.
Prior to June 2004, the vowel
[?]
akin to but more open than ?o?, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character '
middle dot
' (U+00B7, ?·?) or, less commonly, the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997, proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC
working group
in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely,
ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2
– to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents
N1593
,
N2507
,
N2628
,
N2699
, and
N2770
). Font support has followed: for example, in
Charis SIL
.
Sociolinguistics
[
edit
]
Regional variations
[
edit
]
The
prestige variant
of Taiwanese Hokkien is the southern speech found in
Tainan
and
Kaohsiung
. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near
Taichung
and the port town of
Lukang
), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in
Yilan
).
The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel
⟨uiⁿ⟩
in place of
⟨ng⟩
. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the
8th tone
, and some vowel exchanges (for example,
⟨i⟩
and
⟨u⟩
,
⟨e⟩
and
⟨oe⟩
). The central speech has an additional vowel
[?]
or
[ø]
between
⟨i⟩
and
⟨u⟩
, which may be represented as
⟨o⟩
. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to
Kinmen
and
Penghu
.
[57]
[58]
Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to the seventh (mid-level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to the third (low falling) tone.
Certain new north?south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.
[
citation needed
]
[59]
The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.
[60]
[
better source needed
]
Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations
[
edit
]
Hokkien
immigrants to Taiwan originated from
Quanzhou
prefecture (44.8%) and
Zhangzhou
prefecture (35.2%).
[
citation needed
]
The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as
Chiang–Choan-l?m
(?泉濫, in Mandarin
Zh?ng–Quan lan
).
Due to different proportions of the mixture, some regions are inclined more towards the Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards the Zhangzhou accent.
In general, the Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the
hai-khau
accent; the Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the
l?i-po?
accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end to the northern coastal
Yilan
accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.
Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents
Recent terminological distinctions
[
edit
]
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Kloter, following
董忠司
) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:
- hai-khau
(
海口腔
): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
- phian-hai
(
偏海腔
): coastal (represented by the Nanliao (
南寮
) accent)
- l?i-po?
(
內?腔
): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
- phian-l?i
(
偏內腔
): interior (represented by the
Taibao
accent)
- thong-heng
(
通行腔
): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec.
Datong
) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both
phian-hai
and
phian-l?i
are intermediate dialects between
hai-khau
and
l?i-po?
, these also known as
thong-heng
(
通行腔
) or "
不泉不?
". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.
[
citation needed
]
Fluency
[
edit
]
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both
Mandarin
and Hokkien, but the degree of fluency varies widely.
[34]
There are, however, small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively
Hakka
and
Mainlanders
, who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas, as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders, tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and
Aboriginal
bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency but can neither speak nor understand the language.
Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general, people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in
rural
areas, while Mandarin is used more in
urban
settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres,
soap opera
,
variety shows
, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.
Special literary and art forms
[
edit
]
Chhit-j?-a
(literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a
poetic
meter
where each verse has 7 syllables.
There is a special form of
musical
/
dramatic
performance
koa-a-hi
: the
Taiwanese opera
; the subject matter is usually a
historical event
. A similar form
po?-t?-hi
(
glove puppetry
) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive
televised
spectacles.
See
Taiwanese cuisine
for names of several local dishes.
Bible translations
[
edit
]
As with many other languages, the
translations of the Bible
in Taiwan marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.
The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the Pe?h-?e-j? orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan,
James Laidlaw Maxwell
, with the New Testament
Lan e Kiu-chu Ia-so? Ki-tok e Sin-iok
published in 1873 and the Old Testament
K?-iok e Seng Keng
in 1884.
The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan,
Thomas Barclay
, carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.
[62]
[63]
A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the
Pe?h-?e-j?
orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the
Amoy Romanized Bible
[
nan
]
(Pe?h-?e-j?:
Sin-k?-iok e Seng-keng
). 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as
Seng-keng Tai-gi Han-j? Pun
[
nan
]
(
聖經台語漢字本
) in 1996.
[64]
The Ko-Tan (
Kerygma
) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (
Sin-iok
) in Pe?h-?e-j?, also known as the
Red Cover Bible
[
nan
]
(
Ang-phoe Seng-keng
), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant
Presbyterian Church in Taiwan
and the Roman Catholic mission
Maryknoll
. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near
Tai-tiong
. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975.
A translation using the principle of
functional equivalence
, "
Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version
[
nan
]
" (
現代台語譯本
;
Hi?n-t?i Tai-gu E?k-pun
), containing only the New Testament, again in Pe?h-?e-j?, was published in 2008
[65]
as a collaboration between the
Presbyterian Church in Taiwan
and the
Bible Society in Taiwan
; a parallel-text version with both Han-character and Pe?h-?e-j? orthographies was published in 2013.
[66]
A translation of the Old Testament following the same principle was completed and the whole Bible was published in 2021 as a parallel-text volume.
[67]
[68]
Another translation using the principle of functional equivalence, "Common Taiwanese Bible" (
Choan-bin Tai-gi Seng-keng
), with versions of Pe?h-?e-j?, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and Pe?h-?e-j?) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.
[
citation needed
]
Politics
[
edit
]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese Hokkien, along with all
varieties
other than
Mandarin
, was discouraged by the Kuomintang through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and the Taiwanese became an emblem of
localization
. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with students' choice of the mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or
aboriginal languages
.
Although the use of Taiwanese Hokkien over Mandarin was historically part of the
Taiwan independence movement
, the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese Hokkien is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time, even some supporters of Taiwan's independence have played down its connection with the Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the
Mainlanders
and
Hakka people
.
James Soong
restricted the use of Taiwanese Hokkien and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the
Government Information Office
earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use it in semi-formal occasions.
[
improper synthesis?
]
Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan's independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President
Chen Shui-bian
, who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current
President of Taiwan
and of the (
DPP
),
Tsai Ing-wen
has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.
[69]
Former President
Ma Ying-jeou
spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008
Double Ten Day
speech when he was talking about the state of the
economy in Taiwan
.
In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the
pro-unification
leaning
Pan-Blue Coalition
and the
independence
leaning
Pan-Green Coalition
. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in
Northern Taiwan
and more Taiwanese in
Southern Taiwan
. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and
PFP
tend to use Mandarin. The
Taiwan Solidarity Union
, which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently
code switch
. In writing, almost everyone uses
vernacular Mandarin
which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even
colloquial Taiwanese characters
is rare.
[70]
[71]
In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the
Legislative Yuan
seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese Hokkien a second official language.
[72]
This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including
Hoklo
who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.
In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese Hokkien.
[73]
After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups but also Hoklo, Hakka, and aborigines. The
Control Yuan
later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.
[74]
In 2017, indigenous languages were given official status in Taiwan,
[75]
as was the
Hakka language
.
[76]
As of 2018
[update]
, English was planned to become an official language in Taiwan,
[77]
although this has not happened ever since. Taiwanese Hokkien is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see
Languages of Taiwan
.
Mother tongue movement
[
edit
]
Taiwanization
developed in the 1990s into a '
mother tongue
revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to
save declining languages
has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese Hokkien in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and indigenous languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.
[78]
[
failed verification
]
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
In junior high this is usually an available
elective
.
[80]
Taiwan also has its own
literary circle
whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.
As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for
Hokkien culture
worldwide in the 21st century.
[81]
Television
[
edit
]
Scholarship
[
edit
]
Kloter's
Written Taiwanese
(cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.
[2]
[3]
[4]
- ^
National language in
Taiwan
;
[5]
[6]
[7]
also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements
[8]
and for the
naturalization
test.
[9]
- ^
Native Language
Words in native languages
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
Taiwanese Hokkien
at
Ethnologue
(24th ed., 2021)
- ^
Mei, Tsu-lin
(1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone",
Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
,
30
: 86?110,
doi
:
10.2307/2718766
,
JSTOR
2718766
- ^
Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
(1984),
Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology
, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, p. 3,
ISBN
978-0-7748-0192-8
- ^
Hammarstrom, Harald
; Forkel, Robert;
Haspelmath, Martin
; Bank, Sebastian (10 July 2023).
"Glottolog 4.8 - Min"
.
Glottolog
.
Leipzig
:
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
.
doi
:
10.5281/zenodo.7398962
.
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Gambino, Christine P. (2016).
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[The Many Tones of Taiwanese]
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Cited sources
[
edit
]
- Ang, Ui-jin
(1987).
臺灣河?語聲調?究
(in Traditional Chinese) (4 ed.). Taipei: 自立?報.
ISBN
9789575960353
.
OCLC
813713530
.
- Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2003).
"Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors"
(PDF)
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University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics
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8
(1). Archived from
the original
on 3 March 2012.
- Davidson, James W.
(1903).
The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions
. London and New York: Macmillan.
OCLC
1887893
.
OL
6931635M
.
- Kloter, Henning (2005).
Written Taiwanese
. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
ISBN
9783447050937
.
- Snow, D. (2004).
Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular
. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
ISBN
9789622097094
.
- Tiuⁿ, J?-hong (2001).
白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說
[
Principles of Pe?h-?e-j? or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues
] (in Chinese). Taipei: Crane.
ISBN
957-2053-07-8
.
- Wu, Soli
(2000).
國臺對照活用辭典
[
Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary
] (in Chinese (Taiwan) and Minnan). Taipei: Yuan-Liou.
ISBN
9789573240884
.
OCLC
45990089
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
Books and other material
[
edit
]
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
- English textbooks & dictionaries
- 李勤岸 (2005).
哈佛臺語101
[
Harvard Taiwanese 101
] (paperback & CD) (in English and Chinese). Translated by Yeh, Chieh-Ting; Lee, Marian. Tainan: 開朗.
ISBN
9789868160811
.
- Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001,
ISBN
0-87950-461-7
or
ISBN
0-87950-460-9
or
ISBN
0-87950-462-5
- Campbell, William
(1913).
A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa
.
Tainan
: Taiwan Church Press.
OCLC
867068660
.
- Iau Cheng-to: Cheng-soan Pe?h-?e-j? (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jin-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
- Tan, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
- Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.
- Japanese publications
- Higuchi, Yasushi (?口 靖
Higuchi Yasushi
): 台?語?話, 2000,
ISBN
4-497-20004-3
(Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD:
ISBN
4-497-20006-X
)
- Zhao, Yihua (趙 怡華
Zhao Yihua
): はじめての台?語, 2003,
ISBN
4-7569-0665-6
(Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
- Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭 正浩
Zheng Zhenghao
): 台?語基本?語2000, 1996,
ISBN
4-87615-697-2
(Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
- Zhao, Yihua (趙 怡華
Zhao Yihua
), Chen Fenghui (陳 ?惠
Chen F?nghui
), Kaori Takao (たかお かおり
Takao Kaori
), 2006, ?でわかる台?語?話.
ISBN
978-4-7569-0991-6
(Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
- Others
- Articles and other resources
External links
[
edit
]
- On the language
- Dictionaries
- Learning aids
- Other
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Research
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Proto-languages
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Rime dictionaries
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