Chinese martial art
This article is about the Chinese martial art. For the philosophical concept, see
Taiji (philosophy)
. For other uses of tai chi, see
Taiji
.
Tai chi
is an ancient
Chinese martial art
. Initially developed for combat and self-defense, it has evolved into a sport and form of
exercise
. Tai chi is a gentle, low-impact form of exercise in which practitioners perform a series of deliberate, flowing motions while focusing on deep, slow breaths. Often referred to as "
meditation
in motion," tai chi aims to concentrate and balance the body's
qi
(vital energy), providing benefits to mental and physical health.
[1]
Many forms of tai chi are practiced, both traditional and modern. While the precise origins are not known, the earliest documented practice is from
Chen Village
,
Henan
. Most modern styles trace their development to the five traditional schools:
Chen
,
Yang
,
Wu (Hao)
,
Wu
, and
Sun
. Practitioners such as
Yang Chengfu
and
Sun Lutang
in the early 20th century promoted the art for its health benefits.
Tai chi was included in the
UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
in 2020.
[3]
Etymology
[
edit
]
The name "tai chi", the most common English spelling, is not a standard
romanization
of the Chinese name for the art (simplified Chinese:
太?拳
; traditional Chinese:
太極拳
;
lit.
'
Taiji
boxing'). The Chinese name was first commonly written in English using the
Wade?Giles
system as "
tʻai chi chʻuan
". But English speakers abbreviated it to "
tʻai chi
" and dropped the mark of aspiration. Since the late twentieth century,
pinyin
has replaced Wade?Giles as the most popular system for romanizing Chinese. In pinyin, tai chi is spelled
taijiquan
(
taijiquan
).
[4]
[5]
In English, tai chi is sometimes referred to as "
shadowboxing
".
[6]
The etymology of tai chi's Chinese name is somewhat uncertain because of the lack of a record of spoken usage. Before the mid-nineteenth century, it appears that outsiders generically described the art as
zhanquan
(
沾拳
, "touch boxing"), "Long Boxing"(
長拳
),
[note 1]
mianquan
("Soft/Cotton/Neutralizing Boxing";
軟/棉/化拳
)
[
citation needed
]
or
shisan shi
(
十三式
, "the thirteen techniques").
[7]
In the mid-nineteenth century, the art began to be associated with the philosophy of
taiji
(see
Conceptual background
).
[8]
This association may have originated in the
writings of the founders of Wu (Hao)-style tai chi
, perhaps inspired by a tai chi classic attributed to the semi-mythical
Wang Zongyue
that begins with the words "
Taiji
is born from
Wuji
; it is the mother of
Yin and Yang
".
[note 2]
However, as the Wu (Hao) founders had no financial need to promote their art, their contributions to the "tai chi classics" were not distributed widely for many years. The first public association between
taiji
and the art was a poem by Imperial Court scholar
Weng Tonghe
describing a tai chi performance by
Yang Luchan
.
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
It is not clear whether Weng was making a new connection or whether the new name was already in use. Written evidence for the Yang family's adoption of the name
taiji
first appeared in a later text, possibly completed in 1875 by Yang Luchan's son,
Yang Banhou
, or no later than the first decade of the twentieth century by one or more of Yang Banhou's disciples.
[15]
[12]
By the second decade of the twentieth century,
Yang Chengfu
's disciples and
Sun Lutang
were using the term
taijiquan
in their publications, including in the titles of some of the tai chi classics. It then appeared in a book by a Chen family member, Chen Xin, published after he died in 1929.
[10]
[17]
Philosophical background
[
edit
]
Chinese philosophy
, particularly
Taoist
and
Confucian thought
, forms the conceptual background to tai chi.
[18]
Early tai chi texts include embedded quotations from early Chinese classics like the
I Ching
,
Great Learning
,
Book of Documents
,
Records of the Grand Historian
, and
Zhuangzi
, as well as from famous Chinese thinkers like
Zhu Xi
,
Zhou Dunyi
, and
Mencius
.
[18]
Early tai chi sources are grounded in
Taiji
cosmology.
Taiji
cosmology appears in both
Taoist
and
Confucian
philosophy
, where it represents the single source or mother of
yin and yang
(represented by the
taijitu
symbol
).
[19]
[18]
Tai chi also draws on Chinese theories of the body, particularly Taoist
neidan
(internal alchemy) teachings on
qi
(vital energy) and on the three
dantian
.
Cheng Man-ch'ing
emphasizes the Taoist background of tai chi and states that it "enables us to reach the stage of undifferentiated pure yang, which is exactly the same as
Laozi
's 'concentrating the qi and developing softness'".
[18]
As such, tai chi considers itself an "internal" (
neijia
) martial art focused on developing
qi
.
[18]
In China, tai chi is categorized under the
Wudang
group of Chinese martial arts
[20]
?that is, arts applied with internal power.
[21]
Although the term
Wudang
suggests these arts originated in the
Wudang Mountains
, it is used only to distinguish the skills, theories, and applications of
neijia
from those of the
Shaolin
grouping, or
waijia
(hard/external styles).
[18]
Tai chi also adopts the Taoist ideals of softness overcoming hardness, of
wu wei
(effortless action), and of yielding into its martial art technique while also retaining Taoist ideas of spiritual self-cultivation.
[18]
Tai chi's path is one of developing naturalness by relaxing, attending inward, and slowing mind, body, and breath.
[18]
This allows the practitioner to become less tense, to drop conditioned habits, to let go of thoughts, to allow
qi
to flow smoothly, and thus to flow with the
Tao
. It is thus a kind of moving meditation that allows us to let go of the self and experience no-mind (
wuxin
) and spontaneity (
ziran
).
[18]
A key aspect of tai chi philosophy is to work with the flow of
yin
(softness) and
yang
(hardness)
elements. When two forces push each other with equal force, neither side moves. Motion cannot occur until one side yields. Therefore, a key principle in tai chi is to avoid using force directly against force (hardness against hardness). Laozi provided the
archetype
for this in the
Tao Te Ching
when he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."
[22]
Conversely, when in possession of leverage, one may want to use hardness to force the opponent to become soft. Traditionally, tai chi uses both soft and hard. Yin is said to be the mother of Yang, using soft power to create hard power.
Traditional schools also emphasize that one is expected to show
wude
("martial virtue/heroism"), to protect the defenseless, and to show mercy to one's opponents.
In December 2020, the 15th regular session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage included tai chi in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
[23]
Practice
[
edit
]
Traditionally, the foundational tai chi practice consists of learning and practicing a specific solo forms or routines (
taolu
)
.
[18]
This entails learning a routine sequence of movements that emphasize a straight spine,
abdominal breathing
and a natural range of motion. Tai chi relies on knowing the appropriate
change
in response to outside forces, as well as on yielding to and redirecting an attack, rather than meeting it with opposing force.
[24]
Physical fitness is also seen as an important step towards effective
self-defense
.
Tai chi movements were inspired by animals, "particularly...birds and" leopards.
[25]
There are also numerous other supporting solo practices such as:
[18]
- Sitting meditation: The empty, focus and calm the mind and aid in opening the
microcosmic orbit
.
- Standing meditation (
zhan zhuang
) to raise the
yang qi
- Qigong
to mobilize the
qi
- Acupressure massage to develop awareness of
qi
channels
- Traditional Chinese medicine
is taught to advanced students in some traditional schools.
[26]
Further training entails learning
tuishou
(push hands drills)
,
sanshou
(striking techniques), free sparring, grappling training, and weapons training.
[18]
In the "
tai chi classics
", writings by tai chi masters, it is noted that the physiological and kinesiological aspects of the body's movements are characterized by the circular motion and rotation of the pelvis, based on the metaphors of the pelvis as the hub and the arms and feet as the spokes of a wheel. Furthermore, the respiration of breath is coordinated with the physical movements in a state of deep relaxation, rather than muscular tension, in order to guide the practitioners to a state of
homeostasis
.
Tai chi is a complete martial art system with a full range of bare-hand movement sets and weapon forms, such as tai chi sword and tai chi spear, which are based on the dynamic relationship between
yin
and
yang
. While tai chi is typified by its slow movements, many styles (including the three most popular:
Yang
,
Wu
, and
Chen
) have secondary, faster-paced forms. Some traditional schools teach martial applications of the postures of different forms (
taolu
).
Solo practices
[
edit
]
Taolu
(solo "forms") are choreographed sets of movements practiced alone or in unison as a group. Tai chi is often characterized by slow movements in Taolu practice, and one of the reasons is to develop body awareness. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout students' bodies, maintain flexibility, and familiarize students with the martial sequences implied by the forms. Usually performed standing, solo forms have also been adapted for seated practice.
[27]
Weapon practice
[
edit
]
Tai chi practices involving weapons also exist. Weapons training and
fencing
applications often employ:
- the
jian
, a straight double-edged sword, practiced as
taijijian
;
- the
dao
, a heavier curved saber, sometimes called a broadsword;
- the
tieshan
, a folding fan, also called
shan
and practiced as
taijishan
;
- the
gun
, a 2 m long wooden staff and practiced as
taijigun
;
- the
qiang
, a 2 m long
spear
or a 4 m long
lance
.
More exotic weapons include:
History
[
edit
]
Early development
[
edit
]
Tai chi's formative influences came from practices undertaken in
Taoist
and
Buddhist
monasteries, such as
Wudang
,
Shaolin
and The Thousand Year Temple in
Henan
.
[28]
The early development of tai chi proper is connected with Henan's Thousand Year Temple and a nexus of nearby villages: Chen Village, Tang Village, Wangbao Village, and Zhaobao Town. These villages were closely connected, shared an interest in the martial arts and many went to study at Thousand Year Temple (which was a syncretic temple with elements from the
three teachings
).
[28]
New
[
clarify
]
documents from these villages, mostly dating to the 17th century, are some of the earliest sources for the practice of tai chi.
[28]
Some traditionalists claim that tai chi is a purely Chinese art that comes from ancient
Taoism
and
Confucianism
.
[18]
These schools believe that tai chi theory and practice were formulated by Taoist monk
Zhang Sanfeng
in the 12th century. These stories are often filled with legendary and
hagiographical
content and lack historical support.
[18]
[28]
Modern historians point out that the earliest reference indicating a connection between
Zhang Sanfeng
and martial arts is actually a 17th-century piece called
Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan
(1669), composed by
Huang Zongxi
(1610?1695).
[8]
[18]
Aside from this single source, the other claims of connections between tai chi and Zhang Sanfeng appeared no earlier than the 19th century.
[8]
[18]
According to Douglas Wile, "there is no record of a Zhang Sanfeng in the
Song Dynasty
(960?1279), and there is no mention in the
Ming
(1368?1644) histories or hagiographies of Zhang Sanfeng of any connection between the immortal and the martial arts."
[18]
Another common theory for the origin of tai chi is that it was created by
Chen Wangting
(1580?1660) while living in Chen Village (陳家溝), Henan.
[29]
The other four contemporary traditional tai chi styles (Yang, Sun, Wu and Wu/Hao) trace their teachings back to Chen village in the early 1800s.
[30]
Yang Luchan
(1799?1872), the founder of the popular
Yang style
, trained with the Chen family for 18 years before he started to teach in
Beijing
, which strongly suggests that his work was heavily influenced by
the Chen family art
. Martial arts historian Xu Zhen claimed that the tai chi of Chen Village was influenced by the
Taizu changquan
style practiced at nearby
Shaolin Monastery
, while
Tang Hao
thought it was derived from a treatise by
Ming dynasty
general
Qi Jiguang
,
Jixiao Xinshu
("New Treatise on Military Efficiency"), which discussed several martial arts styles including
Taizu changquan
.
[31]
[32]
Standardization
[
edit
]
In 1956 the Chinese government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee (CSC), which brought together four
wushu
teachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to
24 postures
. This was an attempt to standardize tai chi for
wushu
tournaments as they wanted to create a routine that would be much less difficult to learn than the classical 88 to 108 posture solo hand forms.
Another 1950s form is the "97 movements combined tai chi form", which blends Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles.
In 1976, they developed a slightly longer demonstration form that would not require the traditional forms' memory, balance, and coordination. This became the "Combined 48 Forms" that were created by three
wushu
coaches, headed by Men Hui Feng. The combined forms simplified and combined classical forms from the original Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun styles. Other competitive forms were designed to be completed within a six-minute time limit.
In the late 1980s, CSC standardized more competition forms for the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee of
wushu
coaches in China. These forms were named after their style: the "Chen-style national competition form" is the "56 Forms". The combined forms are "The 42-Form" or simply the "Competition Form".
In the 11th
Asian Games
of 1990,
wushu
was included as an item for competition for the first time with the
42-Form
representing tai chi. The
International Wushu Federation
(IWUF) applied for
wushu
to be part of the
Olympic games
.
[33]
Tai chi was added to the
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
in 2020 for China.
[34]
Styles
[
edit
]
Chinese origin
[
edit
]
The five major styles of tai chi are named for the Chinese families who originated them:
The most popular is Yang, followed by Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.
[18]
The styles share underlying theory, but their training differs.
Dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots followed, although the family schools are accepted as standard by the international community. Other important styles are
Zhaobao tai chi
, a close cousin of Chen style, which is recognized by Western practitioners; Fu style, created by
Fu Zhensong
, which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and incorporates movements from
baguazhang
;
[
citation needed
]
and
Cheng Man-ch'ing
style, which simplifies Yang style.
Around the world in the 20th and 21st centuries, some Chinese emigrants who had learned tai chi in China continued to practice it together in their new communities.
[
citation needed
]
North America
[
edit
]
United States
[
edit
]
Choy Hok Pang
, a disciple of
Yang Chengfu
, was the first known proponent of tai chi to openly teach in the United States, beginning in 1939. His son and student Choy Kam Man emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach tai chi in
Chinatown
. Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.
[35]
[36]
Sophia Delza
, a professional dancer and student of
Ma Yueliang
, performed the first known public demonstration of tai chi in the United States at the New York City
Museum of Modern Art
in 1954. She wrote the first English language book on tai chi,
T'ai-chi Ch'uan: Body and Mind in Harmony
, in 1961. She taught regular classes at
Carnegie Hall
, the
Actors Studio
, and the
United Nations
.
[37]
[38]
Cheng Man-ch'ing
opened his school Shr Jung tai chi after he moved to New York from Taiwan in 1964. Unlike the older generation of practitioners, Cheng was cultured and educated in American ways,
[
clarification needed
]
and thus was able to transcribe Yang's dictation into a written manuscript that became the de facto manual for Yang style. Cheng felt Yang's traditional 108-movement form was unnecessarily long and repetitive, which makes it difficult to learn.
[
citation needed
]
He thus created a shortened 37-movement version that he taught in his schools. Cheng's form became the dominant form in the eastern United States until other teachers immigrated in larger numbers in the 1990s. He taught until his death in 1975.
[39]
Canada
[
edit
]
Moy Lin-shin
arrived in
Toronto, Ontario
,
Canada
from China in 1970, where he started teaching tai chi and related internal arts.
[40]
Europe
[
edit
]
United Kingdom
[
edit
]
Norwegian
Pytt Geddes
was the first European to teach tai chi in Britain, holding classes at
The Place
in London in the early 1960s. She had first encountered tai chi in Shanghai in 1948, and studied with Choy Hok Pang and his son Choy Kam Man (who both also taught in the United States) while living in Hong Kong in the late 1950s.
[41]
Yin and yang
[
edit
]
More traditional practitioners hold that the two aspects of health and martial arts make up the art's
yin
and
yang
. The "family" schools present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students.
[42]
Health
[
edit
]
Tai chi's health training concentrates on relieving stress on the body and mind. In the 21st century, tai chi classes that purely emphasize health are popular in hospitals, clinics, community centers and senior centers. Tai chi's low-stress training method for seniors has become better known.
[43]
Clinical studies exploring tai chi's effect on specific diseases and health conditions exist, though there are insufficient studies with consistent approaches to generate a comprehensive conclusion.
[44]
Tai chi has been promoted for treating various ailments, and is supported by the
Parkinson's Foundation
and
Diabetes Australia
, among others. However,
medical evidence
of effectiveness is lacking.
[45]
[46]
A 2017 systematic review found that it decreased falls in older people.
[47]
A 2011 comprehensive overview of
systematic reviews
of tai chi recommended tai chi to older people for its physical and psychological benefits. It found positive results for
fall prevention
and overall
mental health
. No conclusive evidence showed benefit for most of the conditions researched, including
Parkinson's disease
,
diabetes
,
cancer
and
arthritis
.
[45]
A 2015 systematic review found that tai chi could be performed by those with chronic medical conditions such as
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
,
heart failure
, and
osteoarthritis
without negative effects, and found favorable effects on functional exercise capacity.
[48]
In 2015 the
Australian Government's Department of Health
published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to identify any that were suitable for coverage by
health insurance
. Tai chi was one of 17 therapies evaluated. The study concluded that low-quality evidence suggests that tai chi may have some beneficial health effects when compared to control in a limited number of populations for a limited number of outcomes.
[46]
A 2020 review of 13 studies found that tai chi had positive effect on the quality of life and depressive symptoms of older adults with chronic conditions who lived in community settings.
[49]
In 2022, the U.S.A agency the
National Institutes of Health
published an analysis of various health claims, studies and findings. They concluded the evidence was of low quality, but that it appears to have a small positive effect on quality of life.
[50]
Sport and self-defense
[
edit
]
As a martial art, tai chi emphasizes defense over attack and replies to hard with soft. The ability to use tai chi as a form of
combat
is the test of a student's understanding of the art. This is typically demonstrated via competition with others.
Practitioners test their skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles in
tuishou
("pushing hands") and
sanshou
competition.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
"Long" as in "Continuous"; not to be confused with the external martial art also known as Long Fist or
Changquan
.
- ^
Original text:
太極者. 無極而生. 陰陽之母也.
[9]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
Slow and Steady: The Health Benefits of Tai Chi
, Cleveland Clinic, 2023-09-05
- ^
"Tai Chi now on Unesco's intangible heritage list"
.
South China Morning Post
. Retrieved
2023-07-17
.
- ^
Bacher, Bob (2022).
"Tai Chi? T'ai Chi? or Taiji?"
.
Wang Xi'an Taiji International
.
Archived
from the original on 28 June 2023
. Retrieved
28 June
2023
.
- ^
Margalit Fox (14 January 2017).
"Zhou Youguang, Who Made Writing Chinese as Simple as ABC, Dies at 111"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on 20 January 2017
. Retrieved
28 June
2023
.
- ^
Defoort, Carine (2001).
"Is There Such a Thing as Chinese Philosophy Arguments of an Implicit Debate"
.
Philosophy East and West
.
51
(3): 404.
doi
:
10.1353/pew.2001.0039
.
S2CID
54844585
.
Just as Shadowboxing (taijiquan) is having success in the West
"Wudang Martial Arts"
.
China Daily
. 2010-06-17.
Wudang boxing includes boxing varieties such as Taiji (shadowboxing)
Bai Shuping (白淑萍) (2009).
Taiji Quan (Shadow Boxing), Bilingual English-Chinese
. Translated by Luo Bin (?斌). Beijing University Press.
ISBN
9787301053911
.
- ^
Michael P. Garofalo (2021).
"Thirteen Postures of Taijiquan"
.
Cloud Hands blog
.
Archived
from the original on 2023-04-16
. Retrieved
2023-07-04
.
- ^
a
b
c
Henning, Stanley (1994).
"Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan"
.
Journal of the Chen Style Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii
.
2
(3). Archived from
the original
on 2010-01-01
. Retrieved
2009-11-23
.
- ^
Wang Zongyue (attributed)
,
Taijiquan Jing
太極拳經
- ^
a
b
Davis 2004, p. 38-40
- ^
Wile 1996, p. 20
- ^
a
b
Li Jianqing, p. 37-38
- ^
Yang Zhenji (
?振基
) (1993).
Yang Chengfu Style Taijiquan
?澄甫式太?拳
.
?西民族出版社
(Guangxi Minzu Publishing).
前言
(Introduction).
ISBN
7-5363-1984-3
.
- ^
Yang Banhou 1875
- ^
Sun Lutang 1921
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
Wile, Douglas (2007).
"Taijiquan and Daoism: From Religion to Martial Art and Martial Art to Religion"
(PDF)
.
Journal of Asian Martial Arts
. Vol. 16, no. 4. Via Media Publishing. pp. 8?45.
ISSN
1057-8358
.
- ^
Cheng Man-ch'ing (1993).
Cheng-Tzu's Thirteen Treatises on T'ai Chi Ch'uan
. North Atlantic Books. p. 21.
ISBN
978-0-938190-45-5
.
- ^
Sun Lutang
(2000).
Xing Yi Quan Xue
. Unique Publications. p. 3.
ISBN
0-86568-185-6
.
- ^
Ranne, Nabil (2010).
"Internal power in Taijiquan"
(in German). CTND.
Archived
from the original on 2018-11-07
. Retrieved
2011-01-01
.
- ^
Laozi (attributed)
(249) [400s BCE]. "
七十六章
". In
Wang Bi
(ed.).
Tao Te Ching
.
?大處下柔弱處上
- ^
Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2020),
Decision of the Intergovernmental Committee: 15.COM 8.b.21
, UNESCO,
archived
from the original on 2023-05-30
, retrieved
2023-07-04
- ^
Wong Kiew Kit (1996).
The Complete Book of Tai Chi Chuan: A Comprehensive Guide to the Principles
. Element Books Ltd.
ISBN
978-1-85230-792-9
.
- ^
Clayre, Alasdair
(1985).
The Heart of the Dragon
(First American ed.). Boston:
Houghton Mifflin
. p. 43.
ISBN
978-0-395-35336-3
.
- ^
Wu, Kung-tsao (2006).
Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan (
吳家太極拳
)
. Chien-ch'uan T'ai-chi Ch'uan Association.
ISBN
0-9780499-0-X
.
[
page needed
]
- ^
Quarta, Cynthia W. (2001).
Tai Chi in a Chair
(first ed.). Fair Winds Press.
ISBN
1-931412-60-X
.
Archived
from the original on 2018-08-20
. Retrieved
2018-08-20
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Wile, Douglas. 2016. ‘
Fighting Words: Four New Document Finds Reignite Old Debates in Taijiquan Historiography
’, Martial Arts Studies 4, 17?35.
- ^
Chen, Mark (2004).
Old frame Chen family Taijiquan
. Berkeley, Calif.: North Atlantic Books : Distributed to the book trade by Publishers Group West.
ISBN
978-1-55643-488-4
.
- ^
Wile, Douglas (1983).
T'ai-chi Touchstones: Yang Family Secret Transmissions
. Sweet Ch'i Press.
ISBN
978-0-912059-01-3
.
- ^
Jarek Szymanski (1999).
"Origins and Development of Taijiquan"
.
Chinafrominside.com
.
Archived
from the original on 2016-06-17
. Retrieved
2016-08-20
.
- ^
Jarek Szymanski (2000).
"Taijiquan ? Brief Analysis of Chen Family Boxing Manuals"
.
Chinafrominside.com
.
Archived
from the original on 2016-11-15
. Retrieved
2016-08-20
.
- ^
"Wushu likely to be a "specially-set" sport at Olympics"
.
Chinese Olympic Committee
. October 17, 2006.
Archived
from the original on 2007-03-11
. Retrieved
2007-04-13
.
- ^
"Taijiquan"
. UNESCO Culture Sector.
Archived
from the original on 2020-12-18
. Retrieved
2021-03-06
.
- ^
Choy, Kam Man (1985).
Tai Chi Chuan
. San Francisco: Memorial Edition 1994.
[
ISBN missing
]
- ^
Nick Harvey, ed. (1970).
Ting: The Caldron, Chinese Art and Identity in San Francisco
. San Francisco: Glide Urban Center.
ISBN
9780912078144
.
- ^
Dunning, Jennifer (July 7, 1996).
"Sophia Delza Glassgold, 92, Dancer and Teacher"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on March 20, 2017
. Retrieved
February 18,
2017
.
- ^
"Inventory of the Sophia Delza Papers, 1908?1996"
(PDF)
. Jerome Robbins Dance Division,
New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
. February 2006.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2016-06-16
. Retrieved
2014-12-24
.
- ^
Wolfe Lowenthal (1991).
There Are No Secrets: Professor Cheng Man Ch'ing and His Tai Chi Chuan
. North Atlantic Books.
ISBN
978-1-55643-112-8
.
- ^
Scrivener, Leslie (September 9, 2007).
"Marshalling praise for art of Tai Chi"
.
The Toronto Star
. Retrieved
2008-02-11
.
- ^
"Pytt Geddes (obituary)"
.
The Daily Telegraph
. 21 March 2006. Archived from
the original
on 4 December 2007
. Retrieved
16 January
2020
.
- ^
Woolidge, Doug (June 1997). "T'AI CHI".
The International Magazine of T'ai Chi Ch'uan
.
21
(3). Wayfarer Publications.
ISSN
0730-1049
.
- ^
Yip, Y. L. (Autumn 2002). "Pivot ? Qi".
The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health and Fitness
.
12
(3). Insight Graphics Publishers.
ISSN
1056-4004
.
- ^
Yang GY, Wang LQ, Ren J, Zhang Y, Li ML, Zhu YT, Luo J, Cheng YJ, Li WY, Wayne PM, Liu JP (2015).
"Evidence base of clinical studies on Tai Chi: a bibliometric analysis"
.
PLOS ONE
.
10
(3): e0120655.
Bibcode
:
2015PLoSO..1020655Y
.
doi
:
10.1371/journal.pone.0120655
.
PMC
4361587
.
PMID
25775125
.
- ^
a
b
Lee, M. S.; Ernst, E. (2011). "Systematic reviews of t'ai chi: An overview".
British Journal of Sports Medicine
.
46
(10): 713?8.
doi
:
10.1136/bjsm.2010.080622
.
PMID
21586406
.
S2CID
206878632
.
- ^
a
b
Baggoley C (2015).
"Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance"
(PDF)
. Australian Government ? Department of Health. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 22 December 2015
. Retrieved
12 December
2015
.
- ^
Lomas-Vega, R; Obrero-Gaitan, E; Molina-Ortega, FJ; Del-Pino-Casado, R (September 2017). "Tai Chi for Risk of Falls. A Meta-analysis".
Journal of the American Geriatrics Society
.
65
(9): 2037?2043.
doi
:
10.1111/jgs.15008
.
PMID
28736853
.
S2CID
21131912
.
- ^
Chen, Yi-Wen; Hunt, Michael A.; Campbell, Kristin L.; Peill, Kortni; Reid, W. Darlene (2015-09-17).
"The effect of Tai Chi on four chronic conditions ? cancer, osteoarthritis, heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analyses"
.
British Journal of Sports Medicine
.
50
(7): bjsports-2014-094388.
doi
:
10.1136/bjsports-2014-094388
.
ISSN
1473-0480
.
PMID
26383108
.
Archived
from the original on 2015-10-16
. Retrieved
2015-10-09
.
- ^
Choo, YT (2020). "Effectiveness of tai chi on quality of life, depressive symptoms and physical function among community-dwelling older adults with chronic disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
International Journal of Nursing Studies
.
111
. Elsevier: 103737.
doi
:
10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103737
.
PMID
32891966
.
S2CID
221523402
.
- ^
National Center for Complementary and Intrgrative Health (March 2022). Inna Belfer; Lanay Mudd; David Shurtleff (eds.).
"Tai Chi: What You Need To Know"
. National Institutes of Health.
Archived
from the original on 2022-10-12
. Retrieved
2022-10-12
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
Books
[
edit
]
- Agar-Hutton, Robert (2018).
The Metamorphosis of Tai Chi: Created to kill; evolved to heal; teaching peace
. Ex-L-Ence Publishing.
ISBN
978-1-9164944-1-1
.
- Bluestein, Jonathan (2014).
Research of Martial Arts
. CreateSpace.
ISBN
978-1-4991-2251-0
.
- Bond, Joey
(1999).
See Man Jump See God Fall: Tai Chi Vs. Technology
. International Promotions Promotion Pub.
ISBN
978-1-57901-001-0
.
- Choy, Kam Man (1985).
Tai Chi Chuan
. San Francisco, California: Memorial Edition 1994.
[
ISBN missing
]
- Davis, Barbara (2004).
Taijiquan Classics: An Annotated Translation
. North Atlantic Books.
ISBN
978-1-55643-431-0
.
- Eberhard, Wolfram (1986).
A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought
. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
ISBN
0-415-00228-1
.
- Frantzis, Bruce (2007).
The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi and Hsing-I
. Blue Snake Books.
ISBN
978-1-58394-190-4
.
- Gaffney, David; Sim, Davidine Siaw-Voon (2014).
The Essence of Taijiquan
. CreateSpace.
ISBN
978-1-5006-0923-8
.
- L?, Jianq?ng (2006).
永年太?拳志
[
Yongnian Taijiquan Gazetteer
]. People's Sports Publishing House.
ISBN
7-5009-3044-5
.
- S?n (
孫
), Lutang (
祿堂
) (1921).
Taiji quan xue
太極拳學
[
A Study of Taiji Boxing
].
- S?n (
孫
), Lutang (
祿堂
) (2018).
Taiji quan xue
太極拳學
[
A Study of Taiji Boxing
] (in Traditional Chinese). Dazhan Publishing House.
ISBN
978-986-346-201-9
.
- ??堂武?集注 太?拳?
[
Sun Lutang Martial Theory Collection: A Study of Taiji Boxing
] (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: Beijing Science and Technology Press. 2016.
ISBN
9787530486252
.
- Wile, Douglas (1983).
Tai Chi Touchstones: Yang Family Secret Transmissions
. Sweet Ch'i Press.
ISBN
978-0-912059-01-3
.
- Wile, Douglas (1996).
Lost T'a-Chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty
. State University of New York Press.
ISBN
0-7914-2653-X
.
- Yang, Banhou (
楊班侯
, 1875*),
太極法說
(
Explaining Taiji Principles
), available online in Chinese and English translation at
Scribd
and also included in Chinese and English translation in Wile, Douglas (1996) (*Scholars estimate the publication date to be between 1875 and 1910, and believe the author(s) to be Yang Banhou and/or his disciples)
- Yang, Yang; Grubisich, Scott A. (2008).
Taijiquan: The Art of Nurturing, The Science of Power
(2nd ed.). Zhenwu Publication.
ISBN
978-0-9740990-1-9
.
Magazines
[
edit
]
|
---|
Main topics
| | |
---|
TCM and philosophy
| |
---|
Traditional practices
| |
---|
Qigong
forms and styles
| |
---|
Qigong
masters
| |
---|
Spiritual movements and politics
| |
---|
Related topics
| |
---|
|
|
---|
Main taolu events
| |
---|
Sparring
| |
---|
Related
| |
---|