Largest island of the Svalbard archipelago in northern Norway
Spitsbergen
(
Urban East Norwegian:
[?sp??ts?bær?n?]
; formerly known as
West Spitsbergen
;
Norwegian
:
Vest Spitsbergen
or
Vestspitsbergen
[?v??st?sp?tsbær?n?]
, also sometimes spelled
Spitzbergen
)
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
is the largest and the only permanently populated island of the
Svalbard
archipelago
in northern Norway.
Constituting the westernmost bulk of the archipelago, it borders the Arctic Ocean, the
Norwegian Sea
and the
Greenland Sea
. Spitsbergen covers an area of 37,673 km
2
(14,546 sq mi), making it the largest island in Norway and the
36th largest in the world
. The administrative centre is
Longyearbyen
. Other settlements, in addition to research outposts, are the Russian mining community of
Barentsburg
, the research community of
Ny-Alesund
, and the mining outpost of
Sveagruva
. Spitsbergen was covered in 21,977 km
2
(8,485 sq mi) of ice in 1999, which was approximately 58.5% of the island's total area.
The island was first used as a
whaling
base in the 17th and 18th centuries, after which it was abandoned. Coal mining started at the end of the 19th century, and several permanent communities were established. The
Svalbard Treaty
of 1920 recognized Norwegian
sovereignty
and established Svalbard as a
free economic zone
and a
demilitarized zone
.
The Norwegian
Store Norske
and the Russian
Arktikugol
are the only mining companies at Spitsbergen. Research and tourism have become the important supplementary industries, featuring among others the
University Centre in Svalbard
and the
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft and boats serve as local transport.
Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen
provides the main point of entry and exit.
The island has an
Arctic climate
, although with significantly higher temperatures than other places at the same latitude. The
flora
benefits from the long period of
midnight sun
, which compensates for the
polar night
. Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds, and also supports
polar bears
,
arctic foxes
,
reindeer
and
marine mammals
. Six national parks protect the largely untouched, yet fragile environment. The island has many
glaciers
, mountains and fjords.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The Dutch navigator
Willem Barentsz
gave Spitsbergen its name when he discovered it in 1596. The name
Spitsbergen
, meaning "pointed mountains" (from the
Dutch
spits
- pointed,
bergen
- mountains),
[6]
at first applied both to the main island and to the associated
archipelago
as a whole
. In the 17th and 18th centuries, English
whalers
referred to the islands as "Greenland",
[7]
a practice still followed in 1780 and criticized by
Sigismund Bacstrom
at that time.
[8]
The "Spitzbergen" spelling was used in English during the 19th century, for instance by Beechey,
[9]
Laing,
[10]
and the
Royal Society
.
[11]
In 1906 the Arctic explorer
Sir Martin Conway
regarded the
Spitzbergen
spelling as incorrect; he preferred
Spitsbergen
, as he noted that the name was Dutch, not German.
[12]
This had little effect on British practice.
[13]
[14]
In 1920 the international
treaty
determining the status of the islands was entitled the "Spitsbergen Treaty". The islands were generally referred to in the United States as "Spitsbergen" from that time,
[15]
although the spelling "Spitzbergen" also commonly occurred through the 20th century.
[16]
[17]
[18]
The Norwegian administrating authorities named the archipelago
Svalbard
in 1925, the main island becoming
Spitsbergen
. By the end of the 20th century, this usage had become common.
History
[
edit
]
The first recorded sighting of the island was by Willem Barentsz, a Dutch explorer who came across it while searching for the
Northern Sea Route
in June 1596.
[19]
The first good map, with the east coast roughly indicated, appeared in 1623, printed by
Willem Janszoon Blaeu
. Around 1660 and 1728, better maps were produced.
[20]
[21]
The archipelago may have been known to Russian
Pomor
hunters as early as the 14th or 15th century, although solid evidence preceding the 17th century is lacking. Following the English whalers and others in referring to the archipelago as Greenland, they named it
Grumant
(Грумант). The name
Svalbard
is first mentioned in
Icelandic sagas
of the 10th and 11th centuries, but this may have been
Jan Mayen
.
Early claims
[
edit
]
Early
whaling
expeditions to Svalbard in general and Spitsbergen in particular tended, because of currents and fauna, to cluster on the western coast of Spitsbergen and the islands off shore. Shortly after whaling began (1611), the
Danish?Norwegian
crown in 1616 claimed ownership of Jan Mayen and the Spitsbergen islands, as all of Svalbard was then known, but in 1613, the English
Muscovy Company
had done the same.
The primary and most profitable whaling grounds of this joint-stock company came to be centered on Spitsbergen in the early 17th century, and the company's 1613 Royal Charter from the English Crown granted a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen, based on the (erroneous) claim that
Hugh Willoughby
had discovered the land in 1553.
[22]
[23]
Not only had they wrongly assumed a 1553 English voyage had reached the area, but on 27 June 1607, during his first voyage in search of a "northeast passage" on behalf of the company,
Henry Hudson
sighted "Newland" (i.e. Spitsbergen), near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later named the Great Indraught (
Isfjorden
). In this way, the English hoped to head off expansion in the region by the Dutch, at the time their major rival.
[24]
[25]
Initially, the English tried to drive away competitors, but after disputes with the Dutch (1613?24), they, for the most part, only claimed the bays south of
Kongsfjorden
.
[26]
Danish expansion
[
edit
]
From 1617 onwards, a Danish-chartered company began sending whaling fleets to Spitsbergen.
[27]
This successful expansion by Denmark into the North Atlantic has recently been cited by historians as the first step of the Danish?Norwegian state into overseas colonialism. It eventually built
a small overseas empire
of East Indian trade posts, North Atlantic possessions (such as Greenland and Iceland), and a small Atlantic trade route between possessions on the
Guinea Coast
(in modern Ghana) and what are now the
United States Virgin Islands
.
[28]
[29]
The entire Svalbard archipelago, nominally ruled first by
Denmark?Norway
, and later the Norwegians (as
Union between Sweden and Norway
from 1814 to 1905, independent Norway from 1905), remained a source of riches for fishery and whaling vessels from many nations. The islands also became the launching point for a number of
Arctic
explorers, including
William Edward Parry
,
Adolf Erik Nordenskiold
,
Otto Martin Torell
,
Alfred Gabriel Nathorst
,
Roald Amundsen
and
Ernest Shackleton
.
Spitsbergen Treaty
[
edit
]
Between 1913 and 1920, Spitsbergen was a neutral
condominium
. The
Spitsbergen Treaty
of 9 February 1920, recognises the full and absolute sovereignty of Norway over all the arctic archipelago of Svalbard.
[30]
The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and not all Norwegian law applies. Originally limited to nine signatory nations, over 40 are now signatories of the treaty. Citizens of any of the signatory countries may settle in the archipelago. Once named Spitsbergen after its largest island, the Svalbard archipelago was made a part of Norway?not a dependency?by the
Svalbard Act of 1925
. Since this date, it has been a region of Norway, with a Norwegian-appointed governor resident at the administrative centre of Longyearbyen. Limitations on the imposition of certain Norwegian laws are outlined in the Spitsbergen Treaty.
The largest settlement on Spitsbergen is the Norwegian town of
Longyearbyen
, while the second-largest settlement is the Russian
coal-mining
settlement of
Barentsburg
. (This was sold by the Netherlands in 1932 to the Soviet company Arktikugol.) Other settlements on the island include the former Russian mining communities of Grumantbyen and
Pyramiden
(abandoned in 1961 and 1998, respectively), a
Polish research station
at
Hornsund
, and the remote northern settlement of
Ny-Alesund
.
[31]
World War II
[
edit
]
Military operations, Arctic 1941?1945
|
---|
|
Allied soldiers
were stationed on the island in 1941 to prevent
Nazi Germany
from occupying the islands. Norway came under
German occupation
in 1940. Germany took control of the coal fields and the weather station during this time, although most of the inhabitants on the island were Russian and Germany and the Soviet Union had a
non-aggression pact
until 22 June 1941. Once the non-aggression pact was ended, the United Kingdom and Canada sent military forces to the island to destroy German installations, both the Soviet coal mines and the German weather station.
[32]
In 1943, the German battleship
Tirpitz
and an escort flotilla shelled and destroyed the Allied weather station in
Operation Zitronella
. On 6 September, a squadron consisting of
Tirpitz
, the battleship
Scharnhorst
, and nine destroyers weighed anchor in
Altenfjord
and Kafjord and headed for Spitsbergen, to attack the Allied base. At dawn on 8 September 1943,
Tirpitz
and
Scharnhorst
opened fire against the two 3-inch guns which comprised the defences of Barentsburg, and the destroyers ran inshore with landing parties, destroying a supply dump and wrecking a landing station. By noon, the hostilities had ended, with the landing parties returning to the ships, along with some prisoners. The German ships returned safely to Altenfjord and Kafjord on 9 September 1943. This was the last operation for the
Tirpitz
.
[33]
Postwar
[
edit
]
On 29 August 1996,
Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801
crashed on the island, killing all 141 people on board.
[34]
Government
[
edit
]
The
Svalbard Treaty
of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over Svalbard. All 40 signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard. Spitsbergen is a
demilitarized zone
, as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations. The treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment.
[35]
[36]
The island is administered by the
Governor of Svalbard
, who holds the responsibility as both
county governor
and
chief of police
, as well as authority granted from the executive branch.
[37]
Although Norway is part of the
European Economic Area
(EEA) and the
Schengen Agreement
, Svalbard is not part of the
Schengen Area
nor EEA.
[38]
Residents of Spitsbergen do not need visas for Schengen but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without them. People without a means of income can be rejected as residents by the governor.
[39]
Citizens of any treaty signatory country may visit the island without a visa.
[40]
Russia retains a
consulate in Barentsburg
.
[41]
Population
[
edit
]
In 2009, Spitsbergen had a population of 2,753, of whom 423 were Russian or
Ukrainian
, 10 were
Polish
and 322 were non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements.
[42]
The largest non-Norwegian groups in
Longyearbyen
in 2005 were from Thailand, Sweden, Denmark, Russia and Germany.
[43]
Spitsbergen is among the safest places on Earth, with virtually no crime.
[44]
Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the island, the seat of the governor, and the only incorporated town. It features a hospital, primary and secondary school, university, sports centre with a swimming pool, library, cultural centre, cinema,
[45]
bus transport, hotels, a bank,
[46]
and several museums.
[47]
The newspaper
Svalbardposten
is published weekly.
[48]
Only a small fraction of the mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; instead, workers commute to
Sveagruva
(or Svea) where Store Norske operates a mine. Sveagruva is a dorm town, with workers commuting from Longyearbyen on a weekly basis.
[45]
Since 2002,
Longyearbyen Community Council
has had many of the same responsibilities of a
municipality
, including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads and ports.
[49]
No care or nursing services are available, nor is welfare payment available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities.
[50]
The hospital is part of
University Hospital of North Norway
, while the airport is operated by state-owned
Avinor
. Ny-Alesund and Barentsburg are
company towns
with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol, respectively.
[49]
Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the
Norwegian Directorate of Mining
, the
Norwegian Polar Institute
, the
Norwegian Tax Administration
and the
Church of Norway
.
[51]
Svalbard is subordinate
Nord-Troms District Court
and
Halogaland Court of Appeal
, both located in Tromsø.
[52]
Ny-Alesund
is a permanent settlement based entirely on research. Formerly a mining town, it is still a
company town
operated by the Norwegian state-owned
Kings Bay
. While there is some tourism at the village, Norwegian authorities limit the access to the outpost to minimise impact on the scientific work.
[45]
Ny-Alesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180.
[53]
Poland operates the
Polish Polar Station
at
Hornsund
, with ten permanent residents.
[45]
Barentsburg
is the only remaining Russian settlement, after
Pyramiden
was abandoned in 1998. A company town, all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, which operates a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen.
[45]
The village has facilities such as a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm and greenhouse. Pyramiden has similar facilities; both are built in typical Soviet style and are the site of the world's two most northerly
Lenin statues
and other
socialist realism
artwork.
[54]
Economy
[
edit
]
The three main industries on Spitsbergen are coal mining, tourism and research. In 2007, there were 484 people working in the mining sector, 211 people working in the tourism sector and 111 people working in the education sector. The same year, mining produced a revenue of NOK 2,008 million, tourism NOK 317 million and research NOK 142 million.
[49]
In 2006, the average income for economically active people was NOK 494,700?23% higher than on the mainland.
[55]
Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees; there are only a few privately owned houses, most of which are recreational cabins. Because of this, it is almost impossible to live on Spitsbergen without working for an established institution.
[39]
Since the resettlement of Spitsbergen in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity.
Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani
, a subsidiary of the
Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry
, operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter sends 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There has previously been some test drilling for petroleum on land, but this did not give results good enough to justify permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum drilling activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as nature reserves or national parks.
[49]
Spitsbergen Island coins were issued in 1946, with Russian Cyrillic lettering, in the USSR denomination of 10 and 20 kopecks. Then in 1993, coins were again minted in Russian values of 10, 20, 50 and 100 roubles. Both series have the motto "Arctic coal".
Spitsbergen was historically a base for both
whaling
and fishing. Norway claimed a 200-nautical-mile (370 km; 230 mi)
exclusive economic zone
(EEZ) around Svalbard in 1977,
[56]
Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone,
[56]
and the claims are disputed by Russia.
[57]
Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen. Activities include hiking, kayaking, walks through glacier caves and snow-scooter and dog-sled safaris. Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic, including stops by both offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard. Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August; overnight stays have quintupled from 1991 to 2008, when there were 93,000 guest-nights.
[49]
Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny-Alesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. Norway grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard, resulting in the
Polish Polar Station
, Indian
Himadri Station
, and the Chinese
Arctic Yellow River Station
, plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg.
[58]
The
University Centre in Svalbard
in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly
biology
, geology and
geophysics
. Courses are provided to supplement studies at the mainland universities; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English, with Norwegian and international students equally represented.
[59]
The
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
is a "
doomsday
"
seedbank
to store seeds from as many of the world's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible. A cooperation between the government of Norway and the
Global Crop Diversity Trust
, the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen, keeping it at a natural ?6 °C (21 °F) and refrigerating the seeds to ?18 °C (0 °F).
[60]
[61]
The
Svalbard Undersea Cable System
is a 1,440-kilometre (890 mi)
fibre optic
line from Svalbard to
Harstad
, needed for communicating with
polar orbiting
satellite
through
Svalbard Satellite Station
and installations in Ny-Alesund.
[62]
[63]
The
Arctic World Archive
, a huge digital archiving concern run by Norwegian private company
Piql
and the state-owned coal-mining company
Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani
, opened in March 2017.
[64]
In mid-2020, it acquired its biggest customer in the form of
GitHub
, a subsidiary of
Microsoft
.
[65]
Transport
[
edit
]
Within Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Ny-Alesund, there are road systems, but they do not connect with each other.
Off-road
motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground, but
snowmobiles
are used extensively during winter?both for commercial and recreational activities. Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg (45 km or 28 mi) and Pyramiden (100 km or 62 mi) is possible by snowmobile during winter, or by ship all year round. All settlements have ports, and Longyearbyen has a bus system.
[66]
Svalbard Airport, Longyear
, located 3 km (2 mi) from Longyearbyen, is the only airport offering air transport for the island.
Scandinavian Airlines
has daily scheduled services to
Tromsø
and
Oslo
; there are also irregular charter services to Russia.
[67]
Lufttransport
provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to
Ny-Alesund Airport, Hamnerabben
and
Svea Airport
for Kings Bay and Store Norske; these flights are in general not available to the public.
[68]
There are
heliports
in Barentsburg and Pyramiden, and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol.
[69]
Climate
[
edit
]
The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average summer temperature at 4 °C (39 °F) to 6 °C (43 °F) and January averages at ?12 °C (10 °F) to ?16 °C (3 °F).
[70]
The
North Atlantic Current
moderates Spitsbergens's temperatures, particularly during winter, giving it up to 20 °C (36 °F) higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have larger temperature differences than the coast, giving about 2 °C (4 °F) lower summer temperatures and 3 °C (5 °F) higher winter temperatures. On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 °C (9 °F), while about 3 °C (5 °F) in summer.
[71]
Spitsbergen is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild, wet sea air from the south, creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds, particularly in winter; in January, a strong breeze is registered 17% of the time at
Isfjord Radio
, but only 1% of the time in July. In summer, particularly away from land, fog is common, with visibility under 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) registered 20% of the time in July.
[72]
Precipitation is frequent but falls in small quantities, typically less than 400 millimetres (16 in) annually in western Spitsbergen. More rain falls in the uninhabited east side, where there can be more than 1,000 millimetres (39 in) annually.
[72]
Nature
[
edit
]
Three terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the island: the
Arctic fox
, the Svalbard
reindeer
, and accidentally introduced
southern vole
, which are only found in Grumant.
[73]
Attempts to introduce the
Arctic hare
and the
muskox
have both failed.
[74]
There are fifteen to twenty types of
marine mammals
, including whales, dolphins,
seals
,
walruses
and
polar bears
.
[73]
Arctic charr
inhabit Linne´vatn and other freshwater lakes on the island.
[75]
Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Spitsbergen and one of the main tourist attractions.
[76]
While they are protected, persons going outside settlements are required to carry a rifle to kill polar bears in
self-defence
, as a last resort should they attack.
[77]
Spitsbergen shares a common polar bear population with the rest of Svalbard and
Franz Joseph Land
. The
Svalbard reindeer
(
R. tarandus platyrhynchus
) is a distinct sub-species. While it was previously almost extinct, hunting is permitted for both it and the Arctic fox.
[73]
About thirty types of bird are found on Spitsbergen, most of which are
migratory
. The
Barents Sea
is among the areas in the world with most
seabirds
, with about 20 million counted during late summer. The most common are
little auk
,
northern fulmar
,
thick-billed murre
and
black-legged kittiwake
. Sixteen species are on the
IUCN Red List
. Particularly
Storfjorden
and
Nordvest-Spitsbergen
are important
breeding ground
for seabirds. The
Arctic tern
has the furthest migration, all the way to
Antarctica
.
[73]
Only two songbirds migrate to Spitsbergen to breed: the
snow bunting
and the
northern wheatear
.
Rock ptarmigan
is the only bird to overwinter.
[78]
Two partial skeletons of
Pliosaurus funkei
from the
Jurassic
period were discovered in 2008. It is the largest
Mesozoic
marine reptile
ever found?a
pliosaur
estimated to be almost 15 m (49 ft) long.
[79]
Svalbard has
permafrost
and
tundra
, with both low, middle and high
Arctic vegetation
. One hundred and sixty-five species of plants have been found on the archipelago.
[73]
Only those areas which defrost in the summer have vegetation.
[80]
Vegetation is most abundant in
Nordenskiold Land
, around Isfjorden and where effected by
guano
.
[81]
While there is little precipitation, giving the island a
steppe
climate, plants still have good access to water because the cold climate reduces evaporation.
[72]
[73]
The growing season is very short, and may last only a few weeks.
[82]
There are
six national parks
on Spitsbergen:
Indre Wijdefjorden
,
Nordenskiold Land
,
Nordre Isfjorden Land
,
Nordvest-Spitsbergen
,
Sassen-Bunsow Land
and
Sør-Spitsbergen
.
[83]
The island also features
Festningen Geotope Protected Area
; some of the northeastern coast is part of
Nordaust-Svalbard Nature Reserve
.
[84]
All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected.
[77]
Svalbard is on Norway's tentative list for nomination as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
.
[85]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980).
Natural Wonders of the World
. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p.
355
.
ISBN
0-89577-087-3
.
- ^
"Of this Spitsbergen archipelago, the main island (the biggest) had the Norwegian name 'Vest Spitsbergen' ('West Spitsbergen' in English).” Umbreit,
Spitsbergen
(2009), p. ix.
- ^
"Spitsbergen… an Arctic archipelago… comprising the five large islands of West Spitsbergen…". Hugh Chisholm (ed.),
Encyclopædia Britannica
(1911), p. 708
- ^
”… the Archipelago of Spitsbergen, comprising, with Bear Island… all the islands situated between 10deg. and 35deg. longitude East of Greenwich and between 74deg. and 81 deg. latitude North, especially West Spitsbergen…”
Treaty concerning the Archipelago of Spitsbergen
(1920), p. 1.
- ^
Berulfsen, Bjarne (1969).
Norsk Uttaleordbok
(in Norwegian). Oslo:
H. Aschehoug & Co (W Nygaard)
. pp. 301, 356.
- ^
"
In Search of Het Behouden Huys: A Survey of the Remains of the House of Willem Barentsz on Novaya Zemlya
, LOUWRENS HACQUEBORD, p. 250"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 27 March 2009
. Retrieved
10 September
2010
.
- ^
Fotherby, (1613) P45
[1]
by Haven, S (1860)
- ^
"Account of a voyage 1780"
,
Philosophical Magazine
, 1799
- ^
Description
Aston Barker, Beechey,
- ^
A Voyage
Laing 1822
- ^
Proceedings vol 12
Royal Society 1863
- ^
"Spitsbergen is the only correct spelling; Spitzbergen is a relatively modern blunder. The name is Dutch, not German. The second S asserts and commemorates the nationality of the discoverer." ? Sir Martin Conway,
No Man's Land
, 1906, p. vii.
- ^
Lockyer, N
"The Conway expedition to Spitzbergen"
,
Nature
(1896)
- ^
British documents on foreign affairs
British Foreign Office
(1908)
- ^
TIME magazine
NORWAY: Formal Annexation
- ^
Hansard
(1977)
- ^
Jackson, Gordon (1978).
The British Whaling Trade
. Archon.
ISBN
0-208-01757-7
.
- ^
Chart of historical usage trends
- ^
"No Man's Land"
. CUP Archive. 1982.
- ^
"Old World Auctions - Auction Lot Detail"
. Archived from
the original
on 10 August 2016
. Retrieved
4 January
2019
.
- ^
"Archived copy"
. Archived from
the original
on 24 July 2011
. Retrieved
15 September
2010
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
Hudson, Henry
; Georg Michael Asher (1860).
Henry Hudson the Navigator: The Original Documents in which His Career is Recorded, Collected, Partly Translated, and Annotated
. London: Hakluyt Society. pp. clix?clx.
- ^
Schokkenbroek, Joost C.A. (2008).
Trying-out: An anatomy of Dutch Whaling and Sealing in the Nineteenth Century, 1815-1885
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{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
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(in Norwegian). Oslo: Forlaget Det Beste.
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External links
[
edit
]
Look up
spitsbergen
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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100,000 km
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20,000?99,999 km
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Until 1954
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Until 1962
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