Phylum of bacteria
This article is about the bacterial phylum. For spiral-shaped bacteria in general, see
spiral bacteria
.
A
spirochaete
(
)
[4]
or
spirochete
is a member of the
phylum
Spirochaetota
(also called
Spirochaetes
[5]
), which contains distinctive
diderm
(double-membrane)
Gram-negative bacteria
, most of which have long,
helically coiled
(corkscrew-shaped or spiraled, hence the name) cells.
[6]
Spirochaetes are
chemoheterotrophic
in nature, with lengths between 3 and 500 μm and diameters around 0.09 to at least 3 μm.
[7]
Spirochaetes are distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their
flagella
, called
endoflagella
, or
periplasmic flagella
, which are sometimes called
axial filaments
.
[8]
[9]
Endoflagella are anchored at each end (pole) of the bacterium within the
periplasmic space
(between the inner and outer membranes) where they project backwards to extend the length of the cell.
[10]
These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about. When reproducing, a spirochaete will undergo asexual
transverse binary fission
. Most spirochaetes are free-living and
anaerobic
, but there are numerous exceptions. Spirochaete bacteria are diverse in their pathogenic capacity and the ecological niches that they inhabit, as well as molecular characteristics including
guanine-cytosine content
and genome size.
[11]
[12]
Pathogenicity
[
edit
]
Many organisms within the Spirochaetota phylum cause prevalent diseases. Pathogenic members of this phylum include the following:
- Leptospira
species, which causes
leptospirosis
[13]
- Borrelia burgdorferi
,
B. mayonii
,
B. bissettiae
,
B. garinii
,
B. afzelii
,
B. spielmanii
,
B. lusitaniae
, which cause Lyme disease.
[14]
- Borrelia recurrentis
, which causes
relapsing fever
[15]
- Treponema pallidum
subspecies which cause
treponematoses
such as
syphilis
and
yaws
.
- Brachyspira pilosicoli
and
Brachyspira aalborgi
, which cause
intestinal spirochaetosis
[16]
Salvarsan
, the first partially organic synthetic
antimicrobial drug
in medical history, was effective against spirochaetes and primarily used to cure
syphilis
. Additionally, oral spirochaetes are known to play a significant role in the
pathogenesis
of human
periodontal disease
.
[17]
Taxonomy and molecular signatures
[
edit
]
The class currently consists of 14 validly named genera across 4 orders and 5 families.
[18]
[19]
[20]
The orders
Brachyspirales
,
Brevinematales
and
Leptospirales
each contain a single family,
Brachyspiraceae
,
Brevinemataceae
and
Leptospiraceae
, respectively. The
Spirochaetales
order harbours two families,
Spirochaetaceae
and
Borreliaceae
. Molecular markers in the form of
conserved signature indels
(CSIs) and CSPs have been found specific for each of the orders, with the exception of
Brevinimetales
, that provide a reliable means to demarcate these clades from one another within the diverse phylum.
[19]
Additional
CSIs
have been found exclusively shared by each family within the
Spirochaetales
. These molecular markers are in agreement with the observed phylogenetic tree branching of two monophyletic clades within the
Spirochaetales
order.
[19]
CSIs have also been found that further differentiate taxonomic groups within the
Borreliaceae
family that further delineate evolutionary relationships that are in accordance with physical characteristics such as pathogenicity (viz.
Borrelia
emend.
Borreliella
gen. nov.).
[21]
However, this study has been criticized, and other studies using different approaches do not support the proposed split.
[22]
The new naming system for the Lyme and relapsing fever
Borrelia
has not been adopted by the scientific literature.
[22]
A CSI has also been found exclusively shared by all Spirochaetota species.
[19]
This CSI is a 3 amino acid insert in the flagellar
basal body
rod protein FlgC which is an important part of the unique endoflagellar structure shared by Spirochaetota species.
[23]
Given that the CSI is exclusively shared by members within this phylum, it has been postulated that it may be related to the characteristic flagellar properties observed among Spirochaetota species.
[19]
[23]
Historically, all families belonging to the Spirochaetota phylum were assigned to a single order, the
Spirochaetales
.
[11]
[12]
However, the current taxonomic view is more connotative of accurate evolutionary relationships. The distribution of a CSI is indicative of shared ancestry within the clade for which it is specific. It thus functions as a
synapomorphic
characteristic, so that the distributions of different CSIs provide the means to identify different orders and families within the phylum and so justify the phylogenetic divisions.
[19]
Phylogeny
[
edit
]
16S rRNA based
LTP
_08_2023
[24]
[25]
[26]
|
120 single copy marker proteins based
GTDB
08-RS214
[27]
[28]
[29]
|
|
|
"Leptospirae"
|
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"Euspirochaetae"
|
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"Exilispiria"
|
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Spirochaetia
|
|
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DSM‑17781
|
DSM‑17781
|
Spirochaeta cellobiosiphila
|
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|
Spirochaetales_E
|
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Spirochaetales_A
|
Spirochaetaceae_A
|
Spirochaeta thermophila
|
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"Salinispirales"
|
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Taxonomy
[
edit
]
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the
List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature
(LPSN)
[30]
and
National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI).
[31]
- Phylum
Spirochaetota
Garrity and Holt 2021
- Class
Spirochaetia
Paster 2020
- Genus ?"
Spirosymplokos
"
Guerrero et al. 1993
- Order
Leptospirales
Gupta et al. 2014
- Order
Brachyspirales
corrig. Gupta et al. 2014
- Order
Brevinematales
Gupta et al. 2014
- Order "
Exilispirales
"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
- Order
Spirochaetales
Buchanan 1917
["Entomospirales"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Marispirochaetales"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Salinispirales"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Sediminispirochaetales"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
]
- Family "
Pillotinaceae
"
Margulis & Hinkle 1992
- Genus ?
Pillotina
Hollande and Gharagozlou 1967 ex Bermudes et al. 1988
- Family
Borreliaceae
Gupta et al. 2014
- Genus
Borrelia
Swellengrebel 1907
(relapsing fever Borrelia, reptile-associated Borrelia and Echidna-associated Borrelia)
- Genus
Borreliella
Adeolu & Gupta 2015
(Lyme disease Borrelia)
- Genus ?
Cristispira
Gross 1910
- Family
Sphaerochaetaceae
Hordt et al. 2020
- Family
Spirochaetaceae
Swellengrebel 1907
["Entomospiraceae"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Marispirochaetaceae"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Salinispiraceae"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Sediminispirochaetaceae"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
; "Thiospirochaetaceae"
Pallen, Rodriguez-R & Alikhan 2022
]
- Order "
Treponematales
"
Song et al. 2021
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Paster BJ (2010). "Class I. Spirochaetia class. nov.". In Krieg NR, Staley JT, Brown DR, Hedlund BP, Paster BJ (eds.).
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
. Vol. 4?The Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, Tenericutes (Mollicutes), Acidobacteria, Fibrobacteres, Fusobacteria, Dictyoglomi, Gemmatimonadetes, Lentisphaerae, Verrucomicrobia, Chlamydiae, and Planctomycetes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
doi
:
10.1007/978-0-387-68572-4
.
ISBN
978-0-387-95042-6
.
- ^
Oren A, Garrity GM (2020).
"Validation list no. 195. List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published"
.
Int J Syst Evol Microbiol
.
70
(9): 4844?4847.
doi
:
10.1099/ijsem.0.004366
.
PMID
32993851
.
S2CID
222147003
.
- ^
Oren A, Garrity GM (2021).
"Valid publication of the names of forty-two phyla of prokaryotes"
.
Int J Syst Evol Microbiol
.
71
(10): 5056.
doi
:
10.1099/ijsem.0.005056
.
PMID
34694987
.
S2CID
239887308
.
- ^
"SPIROCHAETE | Meaning & Definition for UK English | Lexico.com"
.
Lexico Dictionaries | English
. Archived from
the original
on 27 January 2021.
- ^
Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary
.
Elsevier
.
- ^
Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004).
Sherris Medical Microbiology
(4th ed.). McGraw Hill.
ISBN
978-0-8385-8529-0
.
- ^
Margulis L
, Ashen JB, Sole M, Guerrero R (August 1993).
"Composite, large spirochetes from microbial mats: spirochete structure review"
.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
.
90
(15): 6966?6970.
Bibcode
:
1993PNAS...90.6966M
.
doi
:
10.1073/pnas.90.15.6966
.
PMC
47056
.
PMID
8346204
.
- ^
Nakamura S (April 2020).
"Spirochete Flagella and Motility"
.
Biomolecules
.
10
(4): 550.
doi
:
10.3390/biom10040550
.
PMC
7225975
.
PMID
32260454
.
- ^
Carroll KC, Hobden JA, Miller S (2019).
"Spirochetes and Other Spiral Microorganisms"
.
Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology
. McGraw-Hill Education
. Retrieved
9 May
2021
.
- ^
Madigan MT (2019).
Brock biology of microorganisms
(Fifteenth, Global ed.). NY, NY: Pearson. p. 519.
ISBN
9781292235103
.
- ^
a
b
Paster BJ (2011). "Phylum XV. Spirochaetes Garrity and Holt.". In Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT (eds.).
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
. New York: Springer. p. 471.
- ^
a
b
Paster BJ (2011). "Family I. Sprochaetes Swellengrebel 1907, 581AL.". In Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT (eds.).
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
. New York: Springer. pp. 473?531.
- ^
McBride A, Athanazio D, Reis M, Ko A (2005). "Leptospirosis".
Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases
.
18
(5): 376?86.
doi
:
10.1097/01.qco.0000178824.05715.2c
.
PMID
16148523
.
S2CID
220576544
.
- ^
Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS (September 2021). "Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review".
Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases
.
12
(5): 101766.
doi
:
10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766
.
PMID
34161868
.
- ^
Schwan TG (June 1996). "Ticks and Borrelia: model systems for investigating pathogen-arthropod interactions".
Infectious Agents and Disease
.
5
(3): 167?181.
PMID
8805079
.
- ^
Amat Villegas I, Borobio Aguilar E, Beloqui Perez R, de Llano Varela P, Oquinena Legaz S, Martinez-Penuela Virseda JM (January 2004). "[Colonic spirochetes: an infrequent cause of adult diarrhea]".
Gastroenterol Hepatol
(in Spanish).
27
(1): 21?3.
doi
:
10.1016/s0210-5705(03)70440-3
.
PMID
14718105
.
- ^
Yousefi L, Leylabadlo HE, Pourlak T, Eslami H, Taghizadeh S, Ganbarov K, et al. (July 2020). "Oral spirochetes: Pathogenic mechanisms in periodontal disease".
Microbial Pathogenesis
.
144
: 104193.
doi
:
10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104193
.
PMID
32304795
.
S2CID
215818931
.
- ^
Schoch CL, Ciufo S, Domrachev M, Hotton CL, Kannan S, Khovanskaya R, et al.
"TherSpirochaetia"
.
National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI) taxonomy database
. Retrieved
25 October
2016
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Gupta RS, Mahmood S, Adeolu M (2013).
"A phylogenomic and molecular signature based approach for characterization of the phylum Spirochaetes and its major clades: proposal for a taxonomic revision of the phylum"
.
Front Microbiol
.
4
(217): 217.
doi
:
10.3389/fmicb.2013.00217
.
PMC
3726837
.
PMID
23908650
.
- ^
Oren A, Garrity GM (2014).
"List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published"
(PDF)
.
Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol
.
64
(3): 693?696.
doi
:
10.1099/ijs.0.062521-0
.
- ^
Adeolu M, Gupta RS (2014). "A phylogenomic and molecular marker based proposal for the division of the genus Borrelia into two genera: the emended genus Borrelia containing only the members of the relapsing fever Borrelia, and the genus Borreliella gen. nov. containing the members of the Lyme disease Borrelia (Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex)".
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
.
105
(6): 1049?1072.
doi
:
10.1007/s10482-014-0164-x
.
PMID
24744012
.
- ^
a
b
Winslow C, Coburn J (2019).
"Recent discoveries and advancements in research on the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi"
.
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8
: 763.
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.
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b
Macnab RM (2003). "How bacteria assemble flagella".
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57
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.
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.
- ^
"The LTP"
. Retrieved
20 November
2023
.
- ^
"LTP_all tree in newick format"
. Retrieved
20 November
2023
.
- ^
"LTP_08_2023 Release Notes"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
20 November
2023
.
- ^
"GTDB release 08-RS214"
.
Genome Taxonomy Database
. Retrieved
10 May
2023
.
- ^
"bac120_r214.sp_label"
.
Genome Taxonomy Database
. Retrieved
10 May
2023
.
- ^
"Taxon History"
.
Genome Taxonomy Database
. Retrieved
10 May
2023
.
- ^
Euzeby JP.
"Spirochaetes"
.
List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature
(LPSN)
. Retrieved
20 July
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.
- ^
Schoch CL, Ciufo S, Domrachev M, Hotton CL, Kannan S, Khovanskaya R, et al.
"Spirochaetes"
.
National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI) taxonomy database
. Retrieved
20 July
2018
.
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
|
Terrabacteria
BV1, BV3, BV5
| others
| |
---|
Cyanoprokaryota
|
- Cyanobacteriota
- "
Margulisiibacteriota
"
- "Marinamargulisbacteria"
- "Riflemargulisbacteria"
- "Saganbacteria"
- "Termititenacia"
|
---|
Firmicutes
BV3
Low GC
|
- Bacillota
- Bacillota A
- "
Clostridiia
"
- "Thermoanaerobacteria"
- "Thermosediminibacteria"
- Bacillota D
- Bacillota E
- "Sulfobacillia"
- "Symbiobacteriia"
- "Thermaerobacteria"
- Bacillota G
- "Hydrogenisporia"
- Limnochordia
- "
Desulfotomaculota
"
- "Carboxydocellia"
- "Carboxydothermia"
- "Dehalobacteriia"
- "Desulfitobacteriia"
- "Desulfotomaculia"
- "Moorellia"
- "Peptococcia"
- "Syntrophomonadia"
- "Thermincolia"
- "Halanaerobiaeota"
- "Selenobacteria"
|
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CPR group
| |
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Thermotogida
| Synergistetes
| |
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Thermocalda
| |
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Fusobacterida
| |
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Hydrobacteria
BV2, BV4
| |
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others
| |
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Extant
life
phyla/divisions by domain
|
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