The
space policy of the United States
includes both the making of
space policy
through the legislative process, and the implementation of that policy in the United States' civilian and military space programs through regulatory agencies. The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US?Soviet
Space Race
of the 1960s, which gave way to the
Space Shuttle program
. At the moment, the US space policy is aimed at the
exploration of the Moon
and the subsequent
colonization of Mars
.
Space policy process
[
edit
]
United States space policy is drafted by the
Executive branch
at the direction of the
President of the United States
, and submitted for approval and establishment of funding to the legislative process of the
United States Congress
.
Space advocacy
organizations may provide advice to the government and lobby for space goals. These include advocacy groups such as the
Space Science Institute
,
Space Force Association
,
National Space Society
, and the
Space Generation Advisory Council
, the last of which among other things runs the annual
Yuri's Night
event;
learned societies
such as the
American Astronomical Society
and the
American Astronautical Society
; and policy organizations such as the
National Academies
.
Drafting
[
edit
]
In drafting space policy, the President consults with the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), responsible for civilian and scientific space programs, and with the
Department of Defense
, responsible for military space activities, which include communications, reconnaissance, intelligence, mapping, and missile defense.
[1]
The President is legally responsible for deciding which space activities fall under the civilian and military areas.
[2]
The President also consults with the
National Security Council
, the
Office of Science and Technology Policy
, and the
Office of Management and Budget
.
[3]
The 1958
National Aeronautics and Space Act
, which created
NASA
, created a
National Aeronautics and Space Council
chaired by the President to help advise him, which included the
Secretary of State
,
Secretary of Defense
,
NASA Administrator
, Chairman of the
Atomic Energy Commission
, plus up to one member of the federal government, and up to three private individuals "eminent in science, engineering, technology, education, administration, or public affairs" appointed by the President.
[4]
Before taking office as president,
John F. Kennedy
persuaded Congress to amend the Act to allow him to set the precedent of delegating chairmanship of this council to his vice president (
Lyndon B. Johnson
). The council was discontinued in 1973 during the presidency of
Richard M. Nixon
. In 1989, President
George H. W. Bush
re-established a differently constituted
National Space Council
by
executive order
, which was discontinued in 1993 by President
Bill Clinton
. President
Donald Trump
reestablished the council by executive order in 2017.
[5]
International aspects of US space policy may involve diplomatic negotiation with other countries, such as the 1967
Outer Space Treaty
. In these cases, the President negotiates and signs the treaty on behalf of the United States according to his
constitutional
authority, then presents it to the Congress for ratification.
Legislation
[
edit
]
Once a request is submitted, the Congress exercises due diligence to approve the policy and authorize a budgetary expenditure for its implementation. In support of this, civilian policies are reviewed by the
House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics
and the
Senate Subcommittee on Science and Space
. These committees may exercise oversight of
NASA
's implementation of established space policies, monitoring progress of large space programs such as the
Apollo program
, and in special cases such as serious space accidents like the
Apollo 1
fire, where Congress oversees
NASA
's investigation of the accident.
Military policies are reviewed and overseen by the
House Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
and the
Senate Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
, as well as the
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence
and the
Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
.
The
Senate Foreign Relations Committee
conducts hearings on proposed space treaties, and the various appropriations committees have power over the budgets for space-related agencies. Space policy efforts are supported by Congressional agencies such as the
Congressional Research Service
and, until it was disbanded in 1995, the
Office of Technology Assessment
, as well as the
Congressional Budget Office
and
Government Accountability Office
.
[6]
Congress' final space policy product is, in the case of domestic policy a bill explicitly stating the policy objectives and the budget appropriation for their implementation to be submitted to the President for signature into law, or else a ratified treaty with other nations.
Implementation
[
edit
]
Civilian space activities have traditionally been implemented exclusively by
NASA
, but the nation is transitioning into a model where more activities are implemented by private companies under
NASA
's advisement and launch site support. In addition, the
Department of Commerce
's
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
operates various services with space components, such as the
Landsat program
.
[1]
Military space activities are implemented by the
United States Space Force
and
United States Space Command
.
Licensing
[
edit
]
"Any citizen of or entity organized under the laws of the United States, as well as other entities, as defined by space-related regulations, which are intended to conduct in the United States a launch of a launch vehicle, operation of a launch or re-entry site, or re-entry of a re-entry vehicle, should obtain a license from the
Secretary of Transportation
." Compliance is monitored by the
FAA
,
FCC
and the
Secretary of Commerce
.
[7]
Space programs in the budget
[
edit
]
Funding for space programs is set through the
federal budget process
, where it is mainly considered to be part of
the nation's science policy
. Other space activities are funded out of the research and development budget of the
Department of Defense
, and from the budgets of the other regulatory agencies involved with space issues. In 2020,
NASA
received $22.6 billion, approximately 0.5% of the total budget of the federal government.
[9]
NASA funding has hovered around 0.5% since 2011, after steadily decreasing from 1% of the annual federal budget around 1993, a percentage it had hovered around since 1975. Previously, the threat posed by the Soviet Union had increased
NASA
's budget to around 4% of the total federal budget, peaking at 4.4% in 1966, but the apparent U.S. victory in the
Space Race
rendered
NASA
unable to sustain political support for its visions.
NASA
funding has been criticized over its entire lifetime on the grounds that more pressing concerns exist, such as social welfare programs,
[10]
as well as for various other reasons.
International law
[
edit
]
The United States is a party to four of the five
space law
treaties ratified by the
United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
. The United States has ratified the
Outer Space Treaty
,
Rescue Agreement
,
Space Liability Convention
, and the
Registration Convention
, but not the
Moon Treaty
.
[11]
The five treaties and agreements of international space law cover "non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and the exploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes."
[12]
More specifically, the
Outer Space Treaty
forbids placing
weapons of mass destruction
in outer space, limits the use of celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and establishes that space be freely explored and used by all nations. The Rescue Agreement requires that astronauts must be given all possible assistance by signatories. The Space Liability Convention makes countries bear responsibility for anything that is launched from their territory. The Registration Convention requires countries to register launched space craft. The Moon treaty would change the
Outer Space Treaty
's ban on claiming sovereignty of celestial bodies, and so has not been ratified by any state that engages in human spaceflight. Thus, it has little relevancy in international law.
[13]
According to Nancy Griffin, although the United States was an active participant in the formulation of the Moon Treaty, it has never signed the agreement due to a variety of opposition from a variety of sources, instead opting to postpone a final decision regarding ratification of the 1979 treaty until it has had time to thoroughly evaluate its principles.
[14]
As a result, the United States has ratified all space law treaties all other spacefaring countries have.
The
United Nations General Assembly
adopted five declarations and legal principles which encourage exercising the international laws, as well as unified communication between countries. The five declarations and principles are:
- The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space
(1963)
- All space exploration will be done with good intentions and is equally open to all States that comply with international law. No one nation may claim ownership of outer space or any celestial body. Activities carried out in space must abide by the international law and the nations undergoing these said activities must accept responsibility for the governmental or non-governmental agency involved. Objects launched into space are subject to their nation of belonging, including people. Objects, parts, and components discovered outside the jurisdiction of a nation will be returned upon identification. If a nation launches an object into space, they are responsible for any damages that occur internationally.
- The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting
(1982)
- The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space
(1986)
- The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space
(1992)
- The Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries
(1996)
History
[
edit
]
Truman administration
[
edit
]
In the aftermath of
World War II
, President
Harry S.Truman
approved
Operation Paperclip
between 1945 and 1959, a secret US intelligence program in which more than 1600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians, including
Wernher von Braun
and his
V-2 rocket
team, were brought to the
United States
from Germany for US government employment to gain a US military advantage in the Soviet?American
Cold War
. The
Space Race
was spawned when the
Soviet Union
comparably relocated more than 2200 German specialists in
Operation Osoaviakhim
one night in 1946.
[15]
Von Braun was a strong proponent of spaceflight. It is believed that he and his team were technically capable of launching a satellite several years earlier than the Soviet launch of
Sputnik-1
in 1957, but the
Truman administration
did not consider this a priority. He may also have been the coiner of the concept of
space superiority
, and he lobbied the Truman administration for the construction of a nuclearly armed
space station
, which was to be used as a weapon against the
Soviet Union
.
[16]
He often spoke in public speeches about the need and feasibility of such a space station, to garner public support for the idea, although he never talked publicly about its intended armament. Similarly, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the
RAND Project
was secretly recommending to the US government a major effort to design a man-made satellite that would take photographs from space, and to develop the rockets necessary to put such a satellite in orbit.
[17]
Already in May 1946, the organization released a
Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship
, which was a proposal for a United States satellite program.
[18]
[19]
Truman established the Joint Long Range Proving Ground at Cape Canaveral, which would later on become the
Cape Canaveral Space Force Station
.
[20]
From 1949, the United States government used the site to test missiles. The location was among the best in the continental US for this purpose, as it allowed for launches out over the Atlantic Ocean, and is closer to the equator than most other parts of the United States, allowing rockets to get a boost from the Earth's rotation. In 1951, the Air Force established the
Air Force Missile Test Center
at Cape Canaveral. The Army, Air Force, and the
Applied Physics Laboratory
started in 1950 their use of
Aerobee
sounding rockets on a variety of physics, aeronomy, photography, weather, and biomedical missions,
[21]
and reached beyond the 100 kilometres (62 mile) boundary of space in 1952.
[22]
Meanwhile, the Navy fired its Viking rocket to a record-breaking 136 miles (219 km) in August 1951.
[23]
: 167?171, 236
Eisenhower administration
[
edit
]
In December 1953, the US Air Force had pulled together all its various satellite efforts into a single program known as Weapon Systems-117L (WS-117L). In October 1956, the
Lockheed
Aircraft Corp. got the first WS-117L production contract, but a diplomatic problem associated with aerial surveillance worried President Eisenhower and held back the spy satellite program.
[17]
President Dwight Eisenhower
was skeptical about
human spaceflight
,
[
citation needed
]
but sought to advance the commercial and military applications of satellite technology. Prior to the
Soviet Union
's launch of
Sputnik 1
in 1957, Eisenhower had already authorized
Project Vanguard
, a scientific satellite program associated with the
International Geophysical Year
. As a supporter of
small government
, he sought to avoid a
space race
which would require an expensive bureaucracy to conduct, and was surprised by, and sought to downplay, the
public response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik
.
[24]
In an effort to prevent similar technological surprises by the Soviets, Eisenhower authorized the creation in 1958 of the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA), responsible for the development of advanced military technologies.
[25]
Space programs such as the
Explorer
satellite were proposed by the
Army Ballistic Missile Agency
(ABMA), but Eisenhower, seeking to avoid giving the US space program the militaristic image Americans had of the Soviet program, had rejected Explorer in favor of the Vanguard, but after numerous embarrassing Vanguard failures, was forced to give the go-ahead to the Army's launch
Later in 1958, Eisenhower asked Congress to create an agency for civilian control of non-military space activities. At the suggestion of Eisenhower's science advisor
James R. Killian
, the drafted bill called for creation of the new agency out of the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
. The result was the
National Aeronautics and Space Act
passed in July 1958, which created the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA). Eisenhower appointed
T. Keith Glennan
as
NASA
's first Administrator, with the last NACA Director
Hugh Dryden
serving as his Deputy.
NASA
as created in the act passed by Congress was substantially stronger than the Eisenhower administration's original proposal.
NASA
took over the space technology research started by
DARPA
.
[24]
NASA
also took over the US crewed space program,
Man In Space Soonest
, from the
Air Force
, as
Project Mercury
.
Kennedy administration
[
edit
]
Early in
John F. Kennedy's presidency
, he was inclined to dismantle plans for the
Apollo program
, which he had opposed as a senator, but postponed any decision out of deference to his vice president whom he had appointed chairman of the
National Advisory Space Council
[26]
and who strongly supported
NASA
due to its Texas location.
[27]
This changed with his January 1961 State of the Union address, when he suggested international cooperation in space.
In response to the flight of
Yuri Gagarin
as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to
landing a man on the Moon
by the end of the decade. At the time, the administration believed that the Soviet Union would be able to land a man on the Moon by 1967, and Kennedy saw an American
Moon landing
as critical to the nation's global prestige and status. His pick for
NASA Administrator
,
James E. Webb
, however pursued a broader program incorporating space applications such as weather and communications satellites. During this time the
Department of Defense
pursued military space applications such as the
Dyna-Soar
spaceplane program and the
Manned Orbiting Laboratory
. Kennedy also had elevated the status of the
National Advisory Space Council
by assigning the Vice President as its chair.
[24]
Johnson administration
[
edit
]
President Lyndon Johnson
was committed to space efforts, and as
Senate majority leader
and Vice President, he had contributed much to setting up the organizational infrastructure for the space program, having actually been in personal charge of the space program while Vice President. As a result, he initially pushed strongly for the continuation and expansion of the
Space Race
and Kennedy's vision of a
Moon landing
, stating that "I do not believe that this generation of Americans is willing to resign itself to going to bed each night by the light of a Communist moon".
[28]
However, his ambitions would be restricted by the prohibitive costs of the
Vietnam War
and programs of the
Great Society
, which forced cuts to
NASA
's budget as early as 1965. As a result, Johnson's administration proposed the 1967
Outer Space Treaty
, which barred nuclear weapons from space and prohibited countries from claiming celestial objects as their own as a way to help slow down the
Space Race
.
[29]
The actual flights of the space program were similarly tumultuous under the Johnson administration, as Johnson's term saw both the tragedy of
Apollo 1
, where 3 astronauts died in a training fire, and the
Apollo 8
mission, which carried the first men into lunar orbit, the latter of which occurring just before the end of his term in 1968.
[24]
Nixon administration
[
edit
]
Apollo 11
, the first
Moon landing
, occurred early in
Richard Nixon's presidency
, and five more
Apollo program
Moon landings
followed during his time in office. But
NASA
's budget continued to decline and three planned
Moon landings
were cancelled
. The Nixon administration approved the beginning of the
Space Shuttle program
, but did not support funding of other projects such as a
Mars landing
,
colonization of the Moon
, or a permanent
space station
.
[24]
On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of
NASA's
Space Shuttle program
,
[31]
a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration, however,
NASA
's budget declined.
[32]
NASA Administrator
Thomas O. Paine
was drawing up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the
Moon
by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to
Mars
as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected this proposal.
[33]
On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between
NASA
and the
Soviet space program
, which would culminate in the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
, a joint-mission of an American
Apollo
and a Soviet
Soyuz
spacecraft, during Gerald Ford's presidency in 1975.
[34]
Ford administration
[
edit
]
Space policy had little momentum during the
presidency of Gerald Ford
, and Ford is generally not considered to have made any major contributions to U.S. space policy in part due to his term lasting less than 900 days.
[35]
That said,
NASA
funding was increased somewhat, a change of direction from the decreases in funding during the Nixon administration, the
Apollo?Soyuz Test Project
set up during the Nixon Administration occurred, the
Shuttle program
continued, and the
Office of Science and Technology Policy
was formed.
[24]
Carter administration
[
edit
]
Although coinciding with much of the development of the Shuttle program as begun during Nixon, the
Jimmy Carter administration
was like Ford, fairly inactive on space issues, stating that it was "neither feasible nor necessary" to commit to an Apollo-style space program, and his space policy included only limited, short-range goals.
[24]
With regard to military space policy, the Carter space policy stated, without much specification in the unclassified version, that "The United States will pursue Activities in space in support of its right of self-defense."
[36]
Carter provided the first supplemental budget to NASA in 1979, allowing the
Shuttle
to continue its development. In an interview in 2016, Carter stated, "I was not enthusiastic about sending humans on missions to Mars or outer space... But I thought the shuttle was a good way to continue the good work of NASA. I didn't want to waste the money already invested."
[37]
Reagan administration
[
edit
]
The first flight of the Space Shuttle occurred in April 1981, early in
President Ronald Reagan
's first term. Reagan in 1982 announced a renewed active space effort, which included initiatives such as privatization of the
Landsat program
, a new commercialization policy for NASA,
[38]
the construction of
Space Station Freedom
, and the military
Strategic Defense Initiative
. Late in his term as president, Reagan sought to increase NASA's budget by 30 percent.
[24]
However, many of these initiatives would not be completed as planned.
The January 1986
Space Shuttle
Challenger
disaster
led to the
Rogers Commission Report
on the causes of the disaster, and the
National Commission on Space
report and
Ride Report
on the future of the national space program.
In commercial space travel, Ronald Reagan backed a plan which allowed American satellites to be exported and launched on China's
Long March rockets
.
[39]
[40]
This was criticized by
Bill Nelson
, then a Florida representative, as delaying the U.S.'s own commercial space development, while industry leaders also opposed the idea of a nation-state competing with private entities in the rocketry market.
[41]
The China satellite export deal continued through Bush and Clinton administrations.
[40]
George H. W. Bush administration
[
edit
]
President George H. W. Bush
continued to support space development, announcing the bold
Space Exploration Initiative
(SEI), which had as goals, among other things, a permanent settlement on the Moon and crewed missions to Mars. The SEI faced a number of political hurdles, and opposition only increased when follow-up analysis of SEI reveled a half-a-trillion dollar price tag over 30 years. This, combined with problems on the
Hubble Space Telescope
and massive cost overruns for the Space Station, threatened funding for NASA, but in spite of this, and in spite of an economic downturn,
[42]
Bush ordered a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era.
[24]
The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA, the
Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program
, also known as the Augustine Report.
[43]
Clinton administration
[
edit
]
During the
Clinton administration
, Space Shuttle flights continued, and the construction of the
International Space Station
began.
The Clinton administration's National Space Policy (Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-49/NSTC-8) was released on September 14, 1996.
[44]
Clinton's top goals were to "enhance knowledge of the Earth, the solar system and the universe through human and robotic exploration" and to "strengthen and maintain the
national security of the United States
."
[45]
The Clinton space policy, like the space policies of Carter and Reagan, also stated that "The United States will conduct those space activities necessary for national security." These activities included "providing support for the United States' inherent right of self-defense and our defense commitments to allies and friends; deterring, warning, and if necessary, defending against enemy attack; assuring that hostile forces cannot prevent our own use of space; and countering, if necessary, space systems and services used for hostile purposes."
[46]
The Clinton policy also said the United States would develop and operate "space control capabilities to ensure freedom of action in space" only when such steps would be "consistent with treaty obligations."
[45]
George W. Bush administration
[
edit
]
The
Space Shuttle
Columbia
disaster
occurred early in
George W. Bush
's term, leading to the report of the
Columbia
Accident Investigation Board
being released in August 2003. The
Vision for Space Exploration
, announced on January 14, 2004, by President George W. Bush, was seen as a response to the
Columbia
disaster
and the general state of
human spaceflight
at
NASA
, as well as a way to regain public enthusiasm for
space exploration
. The
Vision for Space Exploration
sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the Solar System and beyond; extend human presence across the
Solar System
, starting with a human return to the Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of
Mars
and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests
[47]
To this end, the
President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy
was formed by President Bush on January 27, 2004.
[48]
[49]
Its final report was submitted on June 4, 2004.
[50]
This led to the NASA
Exploration Systems Architecture Study
in mid-2005, which developed technical plans for carrying out the programs specified in the
Vision for Space Exploration
. This led to the beginning of execution of
Constellation program
, including the
Orion spacecraft
, the
Altair
lunar lander, and the
Ares I
and
Ares V
rockets. The
Ares I-X
mission, a test launch of a prototype Ares I rocket, was successfully completed in October 2009.
A new National Space Policy was released on August 31, 2006, that established overarching national policy that governs the conduct of U.S. space activities. The document, the first full revision of overall space policy in 10 years, emphasized security issues, encouraged private enterprise in space, and characterized the role of U.S. space diplomacy largely in terms of persuading other nations to support U.S. policy. The
United States National Security Council
said in written comments that an update was needed to "reflect the fact that space has become an even more important component of U.S.
Economic security
,
National security
, and
homeland security
." The Bush policy accepted current international agreements, but stated that it "rejects any limitations on the fundamental right of the United States to operate in and acquire data from space,"
[51]
and that "The United States will oppose the development of new legal regimes or other restrictions that seek to prohibit or limit U.S. access to or use of space."
[45]
Obama administration
[
edit
]
The
Obama administration
commissioned the
Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee
in 2009 to review the
human spaceflight
plans of the United States and to ensure the nation is on "a vigorous and sustainable path to achieving its boldest aspirations in space," covering human spaceflight options after the time
NASA
plans to retire the
Space Shuttle
.
[52]
[53]
[54]
On April 15, 2010,
President Obama spoke at the Kennedy Space Center
announcing the administration's plans for NASA. None of the 3 plans outlined in the committee's final report
[55]
were completely selected. The President cancelled the
Constellation program
and rejected immediate plans to return to the Moon on the premise that the current plan had become nonviable. He instead promised $6 billion in additional funding and called for development of a new heavy lift rocket program to be ready for construction by 2015 with crewed missions to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.
[56]
The Obama administration released its new formal space policy on June 28, 2010, in which it also reversed the Bush policy's rejection of international agreements to curb the militarization of space, saying that it would "consider proposals and concepts for arms control measures if they are equitable, effectively verifiable and enhance the national security of the United States and its allies."
[51]
The
NASA Authorization Act of 2010
, passed on October 11, 2010, enacted many of these space policy goals.
Trump administration
[
edit
]
On June 30, 2017, President
Donald Trump
signed an executive order to re-establish the
National Space Council
, chaired by Vice President
Mike Pence
. The Trump administration's first budget request keeps Obama-era human spaceflight programs in place: commercial spacecraft to ferry astronauts to and from the
International Space Station
, the government-owned
Space Launch System
, and the
Orion crew capsule
for
deep space missions
, while reducing Earth science research and calling for the elimination of NASA's education office.
[5]
On December 11, 2017, President Trump signed
Space Policy Directive 1
, a change in national space policy that provides for a U.S.-led, integrated program with private sector partners for a human return to the Moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the
NASA administrator
to "lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the solar system and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and opportunities." The effort will more effectively organize government, private industry, and international efforts toward returning humans on the Moon, and will lay the foundation that will eventually enable
human exploration of Mars
.
The President stated "The directive I am signing today will refocus America's space program on human exploration and discovery." "It marks a first step in returning American astronauts to the Moon for the first time since 1972, for long-term exploration and use. This time, we will not only plant our flag and leave our footprints ? we will establish a foundation for an eventual mission to Mars, and perhaps someday, to many worlds beyond."
"Under President Trump's leadership, America will lead in space once again on all fronts," said Vice President Pence. "As the President has said, space is the 'next great American frontier' ? and it is our duty ? and our destiny ? to settle that frontier with American leadership, courage, and values. The signing of this new directive is yet another promise kept by President Trump."
Among other dignitaries on hand for the signing, were NASA astronauts Sen.
Harrison "Jack" Schmitt
,
Buzz Aldrin
,
Peggy Whitson
, and
Christina Koch
. Schmitt landed on the Moon 45 years to the minute that the policy directive was signed as part of NASA's
Apollo 17
mission, and is the most recent living person to have set foot on the Moon. Aldrin was the second person to walk on the Moon during the
Apollo 11
mission. Whitson spoke to the president from space in April aboard the
International Space Station
and while flying back home after breaking the record for most time in space by a U.S. astronaut in September. Koch is a member of NASA's astronaut class of 2013.
On December 20, 2019, the
United States Space Force
was established with the passing of
NDAA FY2020
.
[57]
On December 9, 2020, the
White House
issued a National Space Policy, which advocated expanding U.S. leadership in space, allowing unfettered access to space, encouraging private sector growth, expanding international cooperation, and establishing a human presence on the Moon with an eventual
human mission to Mars
.
[58]
Biden administration
[
edit
]
President
Joe Biden
's press secretary has expressed his support of the
Artemis Program
which seeks to land a man and the first woman on the surface of the Moon. It is uncertain whether the
Biden Administration
will retain the 2024 target date for the first crewed landing as the
Trump Administration
did.
[59]
President Biden also has expressed his approval of the
United States Space Force
.
[60]
On Dec 1, 2021, the Biden Administration issued a new framework for space policy, called the United States Space Priorities Framework, where the administration pledges to invest in satellites that can observe Earth from space in an effort to better understand climate change. The framework also looks to invest in various
STEM
initiatives.
[61]
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