Bilateral relations
Bilateral relations
Relations between the
Soviet Union
and the
United States
were fully established in 1933 as the succeeding bilateral ties to those between the
Russian Empire and the United States
, which lasted from 1776 until 1917; they were also the predecessor to the current bilateral ties between the
Russian Federation and the United States
that began in 1992 after the end of the Cold War. The relationship between the Soviet Union and the United States was largely defined by mistrust and tense hostility. The
invasion of the Soviet Union
by
Germany
as well as the
attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor
by
Imperial Japan
marked the Soviet and American entries into
World War II
on the side of the
Allies
in June and December 1941, respectively. As the Soviet?American alliance against the
Axis
came to an end following the Allied victory in 1945, the first signs of post-war mistrust and hostility began to immediately appear between the two countries, as the Soviet Union
militarily occupied
Eastern European countries and turned them into
satellite states
, forming the
Eastern Bloc
. These bilateral tensions escalated into the
Cold War
, a decades-long period of tense hostile relations with short phases of
detente
that ended after the
collapse of the Soviet Union
and emergence of the present-day
Russian Federation
at the end of 1991.
History
[
edit
]
Pre-World War II relations (1917?1939)
[
edit
]
Provisional Government
[
edit
]
In wake of the
February Revolution
and
Tsar Nicholas II
's abdication, Washington was still largely ignorant of the underlying fractures in new
Russian Provisional Government
and believed that
Russia
would rapidly evolve into a stable democracy enthusiastic to join the
western coalition
in the
war against Germany
.
[1]
With the establishment of the
Provisional Government
,
United States Ambassador
to
Petrograd
David R. Francis
immediately requested from Washington authority to recognize the new government arguing the revolution "is the practical realization of that principle of government which we have championed and advocated. I mean government by consent of the governed. Our recognition will have a stupendous moral effect especially if given first." and was approved on 22 March 1917 making the United States the first foreign government to formally recognize the new government.
[2]
[1]
[3]
A week and a half later when
President Woodrow Wilson
addressed Congress to request a
declaration of war
against Germany, Wilson remarked "Does not every American feel that assurance has been added to our hope for the future peace of the world by the wonderful and heartening things that have been happening within the last few weeks in Russia? Russia was known by those who knew it best to have been always in fact democratic at heart... Here is a fit partner for a League of Honor."
[1]
[4]
Hoping the fledgling
parliamentary democracy
that would reinvigorate Russian contributions to the war, President Wilson took sizable strides to build a relationship with the
Provisional Government
. The day following his request
declaration of war on Germany
, Wilson began offering American governmental credits to the new Russian government totaling $325 million ? about half of which was actually used. Wilson also dispatched the Root Mission, a delegation led by
Elihu Root
and inclusive of leaders from the
American Federation of Labor
,
YMCA
, and the
International Harvester company
, to
Petrograd
to negotiate means through which the United States could encourage further Russian commitment to the war.
[5]
By product of poorly chosen delegates, a lack of interest from those delegates, and a significant inattention to the role and influence of the
Petrograd Soviet
(some members of which were opposed to the continuing
Russian war effort
), the mission made little benefit to either nation. Despite the satisfactory reports returning from Petrograd, whose impression of the nation's conditions came directly from the
Provisional Government
, American
consular
and military officials in closer contact with the populace and army occasionally warned Washington to be more skeptical in their assumptions about the new government. Nonetheless, the American government and public were caught off-guard and bewildered by the fall of the Provisional Government in the
October Revolution
.
[1]
[5]
[6]
Soviet Russia
[
edit
]
After the
Bolshevik
takeover of Russia in the October Revolution,
Vladimir Lenin
withdrew Russia from the First World War, allowing Germany to reallocate troops to face the Allied forces on the Western Front. This caused the
Allied Powers
to regard the new Russian government as traitorous for violating the
Triple Entente
terms against a
separate peace
.
[7]
Concurrently, President Wilson became increasingly aware of the
human rights violations
perpetuated by the new
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
, and opposed the new regime's
militant atheism
and advocacy of a
command economy
. He also was concerned that
communism
would spread to the remainder of the Western world, and intended his landmark
Fourteen Points
partially to provide
liberal democracy
as an alternative worldwide ideology to Communism.
[8]
[9]
However, President Wilson also believed that the new country would eventually transition to a
free-market
economy after the end of the chaos of the
Russian Civil War
, and that intervention against Soviet Russia would only turn the country against the United States. He likewise advocated a policy of noninterference in the war in the Fourteen Points, although he argued that the former
Russian Empire
's
Polish territory
should be ceded to the newly independent
Second Polish Republic
. Additionally many of Wilson's political opponents in the United States, including the Chairman of the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee
Henry Cabot Lodge
, believed that an independent
Ukraine
should be established. Despite this, the United States, as a result of the fear of
Japanese
expansion into Russian-held territory and their support for the Allied-aligned
Czech Legion
,
sent a small number of troops
to
Northern Russia
and
Siberia
. The United States also provided indirect aid such as food and supplies to the
White Army
.
[7]
[10]
[8]
At the
Paris Peace Conference
in 1919 President Wilson and British Prime Minister
David Lloyd George
, despite the objections of French President
Georges Clemenceau
and Italian Foreign Minister
Sidney Sonnino
, pushed forward an idea to convene a summit at
Prinkipo
between the Bolsheviks and the
White movement
to form a common Russian delegation to the Conference. The
Soviet Commissariat of Foreign Affairs
, under the leadership of
Leon Trotsky
and
Georgy Chicherin
, received British and American envoys respectfully but had no intentions of agreeing to the deal due to their belief that the Conference was composed of an old
capitalist
order that would be swept away in a
world revolution
. By 1921, after the Bolsheviks gained the upper hand in the Russian Civil War,
murdered
the
Romanov imperial family
, organized the
Red Terror
against "
enemies of the people
", repudiated the
tsarist debt
, and called for a world revolution, it was regarded as a
pariah nation
by most of the world.
[8]
Beyond the Russian Civil War, relations were also dogged by claims of American companies for compensation for the
nationalized industries
they had invested in.
[11]
American relief and Russian famine of 1921
[
edit
]
Under
Herbert Hoover
, very large scale food relief was distributed to Europe after the war through the
American Relief Administration
. In 1921, to ease the devastating famine in the
Russian SFSR
that was triggered by the Soviet government's
war communism
policies, the ARA's director in Europe,
Walter Lyman Brown
, began negotiating with the
Russian People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs
,
Maxim Litvinov
, in
Riga
,
Latvia
(at that time not yet annexed by the USSR). An agreement was reached on August 21, 1921, and an additional implementation agreement was signed by Brown and People's Commissar for Foreign Trade
Leonid Krasin
on December 30, 1921. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20,000,000 for relief under the
Russian Famine Relief Act
of late 1921. Hoover strongly detested Bolshevism, and felt the American aid would demonstrate the superiority of Western capitalism and thus help contain the spread of communism.
[12]
[13]
At its peak, the ARA employed 300 Americans, more than 120,000 Russians and fed 10.5 million people daily. Its Russian operations were headed by Col.
William N. Haskell
. The Medical Division of the ARA functioned from November 1921 to June 1923 and helped overcome the
typhus
epidemic then ravaging Russia. The ARA's famine relief operations ran in parallel with much smaller
Mennonite
, Jewish and
Quaker
famine relief operations in Russia.
[14]
[15]
The ARA's operations in Russia were shut down on June 15, 1923, after it was discovered that Russia under Lenin renewed the export of grain.
[16]
Early trade
[
edit
]
Leaders of American foreign policy remain convinced that the Soviet Union, which was founded by Soviet Russia in 1922, was a hostile threat to American values. Republican Secretary of State
Charles Evans Hughes
rejected recognition, telling labor union leaders that, "those in control of Moscow have not given up their original purpose of destroying existing governments wherever they can do so throughout the world."
[17]
Under President
Calvin Coolidge
, Secretary of State
Frank B. Kellogg
warned that the Kremlin's international agency, the
Communist International
(Comintern) was aggressively planning subversion against other nations, including the United States, to "overthrow the existing order."
[18]
Herbert Hoover
in 1919 warned Wilson that, "We cannot even remotely recognize this murderous tyranny without stimulating action is to radicalism in every country in Europe and without transgressing on every National ideal of our own."
[19]
Inside the
U.S. State Department
, the Division of Eastern European Affairs by 1924 was dominated by
Robert F. Kelley
, a dedicated opponent of communism who trained a generation of specialists including
George Kennan
and
Charles Bohlen
.
[20]
Meanwhile, Great Britain took the lead in reopening relations with Moscow, especially trade, although they remained suspicious of communist subversion, and angry at the Kremlin's repudiation of Russian debts. Outside Washington, there was some American support for renewed relationships, especially in terms of technology.
[21]
Henry Ford
, committed to the belief that international trade was the best way to avoid warfare, used his
Ford Motor Company
to build a truck industry and introduce tractors into Russia. Architect
Albert Kahn
became a consultant for all industrial construction in the Soviet Union in 1930.
[22]
A few intellectuals on the left showed an interest. After 1930, a number of activist intellectuals have become members of the
Communist Party USA
, or fellow travelers, and drummed up support for the Soviet Union. The
American labor movement
was divided, with the
American Federation of Labor
(AFL) an
anti-communist
stronghold, while
left-wing
elements in the late 1930s formed the rival
Congress of Industrial Organizations
(CIO). The CPUSA played a major role in the CIO until its members were removed beginning in 1946, and American organized labor became strongly
anti-Soviet
.
[23]
Founded in 1924,
Amtorg Trading Corporation
, based in New York, was the main organization governing trade between the USSR and the US.
[24]
By 1946, Amtorg organized a multi-million dollar trade.
[25]
Amtorg handled almost all exports from the USSR, comprising mostly lumber, furs, flax, bristles, and caviar, and all imports of raw materials and machinery for Soviet industry and agriculture. It also provided American companies with information about trade opportunities in the USSR and supplied Soviet industries with technical news and information about American companies.
[26]
[27]
Amtorg was also involved in
Soviet espionage
against the United States.
[28]
It was joined, in both its trade and espionage roles, by the
Soviet Government Purchasing Commission
from 1942 onward.
[29]
During Lenin's tenure, American businessman
Armand Hammer
established a pencil factory in the Soviet Union, hiring German craftsmen and shipping American grain into the Soviet Union. Hammer also established asbestos mines and acquired fur trapping facilities east of the Urals. During Lenin's
New Economic Policy
, which stemmed from the failure of war communism, Armand Hammer became the mediator for 38 international companies in their dealings with the USSR.
[30]
Before Lenin's death, Hammer negotiated the import of
Fordson
tractors into the USSR, which served a major role in agricultural mechanization in the country.
[31]
[30]
Later, after Stalin came to power, additional deals were negotiated with Hammer as an American?Soviet negotiator.
[30]
Historian
Harvey Klehr
describes that Armand Hammer "met Lenin in 1921 and, in return for a concession to manufacture pencils, agreed to launder Soviet money to benefit communist parties in Europe and America."
[32]
Historian
Edward Jay Epstein
noted that "Hammer received extraordinary treatment from Moscow in many ways. He was permitted by the Soviet Government to take millions of dollars worth of Tsarist art out of the country when he returned to the United States in 1932."
[33]
According to journalist Alan Farnham, "Over the decades Hammer continued traveling to Russia, hobnobbing with its leaders to the point that both the CIA and the FBI suspected him of being a full-fledged agent."
[34]
In 1929,
Henry Ford
made an agreement with the Russians to provide technical aid over nine years in building the first Soviet automobile plant,
GAZ
, in
Gorky
(Stalin renamed Nizhny Novgorod after his favorite writer).
[35]
[36]
The plant would construct
Ford Model A
and
Model AA
trucks.
[36]
An additional contract for construction of the plant was signed with The Austin Company on August 23, 1929.
[37]
The contract involved the purchase of $30,000,000 worth of Ford cars and trucks for assembly during the first four years of the plant's operation, after which the plant would gradually switch to Soviet-made components. Ford sent his engineers and technicians to the Soviet Union to help install the equipment and train the workforce, while over a hundred Soviet engineers and technicians were stationed at Ford's plants in Detroit and
Dearborn
"for the purpose of learning the methods and practice of manufacture and assembly in the Company's plants".
[38]
[39]
Recognition in 1933
[
edit
]
By 1933, the American business community, as well as newspaper editors, were calling for diplomatic recognition. The business community was eager for large-scale trade with the Soviet Union. The U.S. government hoped for some repayment on the old tsarist debts, and a promise not to support subversive movements inside the U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
took the initiative, with the assistance of his close friend and advisor
Henry Morgenthau Jr.
and Russian expert
William Bullitt
, bypassing the State Department.
[40]
[41]
Roosevelt commissioned a survey of public opinion, which at the time meant asking 1100 newspaper editors; 63 percent favored recognition of the USSR and 27 percent were opposed. Roosevelt met personally with Catholic leaders to overcome their objections stemming from the
persecution of religious believers and systematic demolition of churches in the USSR
.
[42]
[43]
Roosevelt then invited Foreign Minister
Maxim Litvinov
to Washington for a series of high-level meetings in November 1933. He and Roosevelt agreed on issues of religious freedom for Americans working in the Soviet Union. The USSR promised not to interfere in internal American affairs, something they would not honor, and to ensure that no organization in the USSR was working to hurt the U.S. or overthrow its government by force, similarly a broken promise. Both sides agreed to postpone the debt question to a later date. Roosevelt thereupon announced an agreement on resumption of normal relations.
[44]
There were few complaints about the move.
[46]
However, there was no progress on the debt issue, and little additional trade. Historians
Justus D. Doenecke
and Mark A. Stoler note that, "Both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord."
[47]
Many American businessmen expected a bonus in terms of large-scale trade, but it never materialized, instead being a one-way movement that saw the United States fuel the Soviet Union with technology.
[48]
Roosevelt named
William Bullitt
as ambassador to the USSR from 1933 to 1936. Bullitt arrived in Moscow with high hopes for Soviet?American relations, but his view of the Soviet leadership soured on closer inspection due to the regime's totalitarian nature and
terror
. By the end of his tenure, Bullitt was openly hostile to the Soviet government. He remained an outspoken anti-communist for the rest of his life.
[49]
[50]
World War II (1939?1945)
[
edit
]
Before the Germans decided
to invade the Soviet Union in June 1941
, relations remained strained, as the
Soviet invasion of Finland
,
Molotov?Ribbentrop Pact
,
Soviet invasion of the Baltic states
and the
Soviet invasion of Poland
stirred, which resulted in Soviet Union's expulsion from the
League of Nations
. Come the invasion of 1941, the Soviet Union entered a Mutual Assistance Treaty with the United Kingdom, and received massive aid from the American
Lend-Lease program
, relieving American-Soviet tensions, and bringing together former enemies in the fight against
Germany
and the
Axis powers
.
Though operational cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union was notably less than that between other allied powers, the United States nevertheless provided the Soviet Union with huge quantities of weapons, ships, aircraft, rolling stock,
strategic materials
, and food through the Lend-Lease program. The Americans and the Soviets were as much for war with Germany as for the expansion of an ideological sphere of influence. Before the war, future President
Harry S. Truman
stated that it did not matter to him if a German or a Russian soldier died so long as either side is losing.
[51]
If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible although I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.
[52]
This quote without its last part later became a staple in
Soviet
and later
Russian propaganda
as "evidence" of an American conspiracy to destroy the country.
[53]
[54]
The American Russian Cultural Association
(Russian: Американо?русская культурная ассоциация) was organized in the United States in 1942 to encourage cultural ties between the Soviet Union and U.S., with
Nicholas Roerich
as honorary president. The group's first annual report was issued the following year. The group does not appear to have lasted much past Nicholas Roerich's death in 1947.
[55]
[56]
In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend-Lease amounted to $11
billion
in materials: over 400,000
jeeps
and trucks; 12,000
armored vehicles
(including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386
[57]
of which were
M3 Lees
and 4,102
M4 Shermans
);
[58]
11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were
Bell P-39 Airacobras
)
[59]
and 1.75 million tons of food.
[60]
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the
Western Hemisphere
to the Soviet Union, with 94 percent coming from the United States. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the
Persian Corridor
alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.
[61]
[62]
The United States delivered to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941, to May 31, 1945, the following: 427,284
trucks
, 13,303
combat vehicles
, 35,170
motorcycles
, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of
petroleum products
(
gasoline
and
oil
) or 57.8 percent of the
high-octane aviation fuel
,
[63]
4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (
canned meats
,
sugar
,
flour
,
salt
, etc.), 1,911
steam locomotives
, 66
diesel locomotives
, 9,920
flat cars
, 1,000 dump cars, 120
tank cars
, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Provided ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) amounted to 53 percent of total domestic production.
[63]
One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford's
River Rouge Plant
and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.
[64]
Memorandum for the President's Special Assistant
Harry Hopkins
, Washington, D.C., 10 August 1943:
In World War II Russia occupies a dominant position and is the decisive factor looking toward the defeat of the Axis in Europe. While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions. Whenever the Allies open a second front on the Continent, it will be decidedly a secondary front to that of Russia; theirs will continue to be the main effort. Without Russia in the war, the Axis cannot be defeated in Europe, and the position of the United Nations becomes precarious. Similarly, Russia’s post-war position in Europe will be a dominant one. With Germany crushed, there is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces.
[65]
Cold War (1947?1991)
[
edit
]
Bilateral relations
The end of World War II saw the resurgence of previous divisions between the two nations. The expansion of communism in
Eastern Europe
following Germany's defeat saw the Soviet Union
takeover
Eastern European countries, purge their leadership and intelligentsia, and install puppet communist regime, in effect turning the countries into client or
satellite states
.
[66]
This worried the liberal free market economies of the West, particularly the United States, which had established virtual economic and political leadership in Western Europe, helping rebuild the devastated continent and revive and modernize its economy with the
Marshall Plan
.
[67]
The Soviet Union, on the other hand, was draining its satellites' resources by having them pay reparations to the USSR or simply looting.
[68]
The United States and the Soviet Union nations promoted two opposing economic and political ideologies, and the two nations competed for international influence along these lines. This protracted a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle?lasting from the announcement of the
Truman Doctrine
on March 12, 1947, in response to the Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe, until the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 26, 1991?is known as the
Cold War
, a period of nearly 45 years.
The Soviet Union detonated its
first nuclear weapon in 1949
, ending the United States' monopoly on nuclear weapons. The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a conventional and
nuclear arms race
that persisted until the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Andrei Gromyko
was
Minister of Foreign Affairs
of the USSR, and is the longest-serving
foreign minister
in the world.
After Germany's defeat, the United States sought to help its Western European allies economically with the
Marshall Plan
. The United States extended the Marshall Plan to the Soviet Union, but under such terms, the Americans knew the Soviets would never accept, namely the acceptance democracy and free elections in Soviet satellite states. The Soviet Union sought to counter the Marshall Plan with the
Comecon
in 1949, which essentially did the same thing, though was more an economic cooperation agreement instead of a clear plan to rebuild. The United States and its
Western European
allies sought to strengthen their bonds; they accomplished this most notably through the formation of
NATO
which was essentially a defensive agreement in 1949. The Soviet Union countered with the
Warsaw Pact
in 1955, which had similar results with the
Eastern Bloc
. As by 1955 the Soviet Union already had an armed presence and political domination all over its eastern
satellite states
, the pact has been long considered "superfluous".
[69]
[70]
Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Pact's primary function was to safeguard the
Soviet Union's hegemony
over its
Eastern European
satellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.
[71]
In 1961,
East Germany
constructed the
Berlin Wall
to prevent the citizens of
East Berlin
from fleeing to
West Berlin
(part of US-allied
West Germany
. This prompted President Kennedy to deliver one of the most famous anti-Soviet speeches, titled "
Ich bin ein Berliner
".
[72]
[73]
In 1949, the
Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
(CoCom) was established by Western governments to monitor the export of sensitive high technology that would improve military effectiveness of members of the Warsaw Pact and certain other countries.
All sides in the Cold War engaged in espionage. The Soviet
KGB
("Committee for State Security"), the bureau responsible for foreign espionage and internal surveillance, was famous for its effectiveness. The most famous Soviet operation involved its
atomic spies
that delivered crucial information from the United States'
Manhattan Project
, leading the USSR to detonate its first nuclear weapon in 1949, four years after the American detonation and much sooner than expected.
[74]
[75]
A massive network of informants throughout the Soviet Union was used to monitor dissent from official Soviet politics and morals.
[76]
[77]
Detente
[
edit
]
Detente began in 1969, as a core element of the foreign policy of president
Richard Nixon
and his top advisor
Henry Kissinger
. They wanted to end the
containment
policy and gain friendlier relations with the USSR and China. Those two were
bitter rivals
and Nixon expected they would go along with Washington as to not give the other rival an advantage. One of Nixon's terms is that both nations had to stop helping North Vietnam in the
Vietnam War
, which they did. Nixon and Kissinger promoted greater dialogue with the Soviet government, including regular summit meetings and negotiations over arms control and other bilateral agreements. Brezhnev met with Nixon at summits in Moscow in 1972, in Washington in 1973, and, again in Moscow and Kiev in 1974. They became personal friends.
[78]
[79]
Detente was known in
Russian
as разрядка (
razryadka
, loosely meaning "relaxation of tension").
[80]
The period was characterized by the signing of treaties such as
SALT I
and the
Helsinki Accords
. Another treaty,
START II
, was discussed but never ratified by the United States due to the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
in 1979. There is still ongoing debate amongst historians as to how successful the detente period was in achieving peace.
[81]
[82]
After the
Cuban Missile Crisis
of 1962, the two superpowers agreed to install a direct hotline between Washington, D.C., and Moscow (the so-called
red telephone
), enabling leaders of both countries to quickly interact with each other in a time of urgency, and reduce the chances that future crises could escalate into an all-out war. The U.S./USSR detente was presented as an applied extension of that thinking. The SALT II pact of the late 1970s continued the work of the SALT I talks, ensuring further reduction in arms by the USSR and by the U.S. The Helsinki Accords, in which the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe, has been called a major concession to ensure peace by the Soviets.
In practice, the Soviet government significantly curbed the
rule of law
,
civil liberties
,
protection of law
and
guarantees of property
,
[83]
[84]
which were considered examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet legal theorists such as
Andrey Vyshinsky
.
[85]
The Soviet Union signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
in 1973 and the Helsinki Accords in 1975, but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities.
[86]
: 117
Human rights activists in the Soviet Union were regularly subjected to harassment, repressions and arrests.
The pro-Soviet American business magnate
Armand Hammer
of
Occidental Petroleum
often mediated trade relations. Author
Daniel Yergin
, in his book
The Prize
, writes that Hammer "ended up as a go-between for five Soviet General Secretaries and seven U.S. Presidents."
[87]
Hammer had extensive business relationship in the Soviet Union stretching back to the 1920s with Lenin's approval.
[88]
[89]
According to
Christian Science Monitor
in 1980, "although his business dealings with the Soviet Union were cut short when Stalin came to power, he had more or less single-handedly laid the groundwork for the [1980] state of Western trade with the Soviet Union."
[88]
In 1974, Brezhnev "publicly recognized Hammer's role in facilitating East-West trade." By 1981, according to the
New York Times
in that year, Hammer was on a "first-name basis with Leonid Brezhnev."
[89]
Resumption and thaw of the Cold War
[
edit
]
Tensions in detente
[
edit
]
Despite the otherwise improvement in relations, various tensions would appear during detente. These included the
Brezhnev Doctrine
, which allowed from Soviet invasions of Warsaw Pact states to keep them under communist rule,
[90]
the
Sino-Soviet split
, an apparent rapprochement between the United States and China with
Richard Nixon's visit to China in 1972
. However, Nixon's international relations priority was Soviet detente even after the visit to China.
[91]
In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking
most favored nation
trade status with the USSR,
[92]
which was challenged by Congress in the
Jackson-Vanik Amendment
.
[93]
The United States had long linked trade with the Soviet Union to its foreign policy toward the Soviet Union and, especially since the early 1980s, to
Soviet human rights policies
. The
Jackson-Vanik Amendment
, which was attached to the
1974 Trade Act
, linked the granting of
most-favored-nation
to the USSR to the right of persecuted
Soviet Jews
to emigrate. Because the Soviet Union refused the right of emigration to Jewish
refuseniks
, the ability of the President to apply most-favored nation trade status to the Soviet Union was restricted.
[94]
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and end of detente
[
edit
]
Detente, also described as
linkage policy
in the West, was challenged by proxy conflicts and increasing Soviet interventions, which included the
Second Yemenite War of 1979
.
[95]
The period of detente ended after the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
, which led to the United States-led 66-nation
boycott of the 1980 Olympics in Moscow
. The United States, Pakistan, and their allies supported the rebels. To punish Moscow, President Jimmy Carter imposed a
grain embargo
.
[96]
Carter also recalled the US Ambassador
Thomas J. Watson
from Moscow,
[97]
suspended high-technology exports to the Soviet Union
[96]
[98]
and limited ammonia imports from the Soviet Union.
[99]
According to a 1980 paper, the grain embargo hurt American farmers more than it did the Soviet economy. Other nations sold their own grain to the USSR, and the Soviets had ample reserve stocks.
[100]
President
Ronald Reagan
resumed sales in 1981.
[96]
Reagan's
election as president in 1980
was further based in large part on an anti-detente campaign.
[101]
In his first press conference, President Reagan said "Detente's been a one-way street that the Soviet Union has used to pursue its aims."
[102]
Following this, relations turned increasingly sour with the
Soviet repression of anti-occupation resistance in Poland
,
[103]
[104]
end of the
SALT II
negotiations,
[105]
and the subsequent
NATO exercise in 1983
.
[106]
Reagan attacks Soviet Union in "Evil Empire" speech
[
edit
]
Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of detente, which had begun in 1979 after the
Soviet invasion
of
Afghanistan
.
[107]
Reagan feared that the Soviet Union had gained a military advantage over the United States, and the Reagan administration hoped that heightened military spending would grant the U.S. military superiority and weaken the
Soviet economy
.
[108]
Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the
United States Armed Forces
, directing funding to the
B-1 Lancer
bomber, the
B-2 Spirit bomber
,
cruise missiles
, the
MX missile
, and the
600-ship Navy
.
[109]
In response to Soviet deployment of the
SS-20
, Reagan oversaw
NATO
's deployment of the
Pershing missile
in West Germany.
[110]
The president also strongly denounced the Soviet Union and communist totalitarianism in moral terms, denouncing the Soviet Union as an "
evil empire
."
[111]
[112]
End of the Cold War (1989?1991)
[
edit
]
The failing Soviet economy and a disastrous war in Afghanistan contributed to
Mikhail Gorbachev
's rise to power, who introduced political reforms called
glasnost
and
perestroika
aimed at liberalizing the Soviet economy and society. At the
Malta Summit
of December 1989, both the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union declared the Cold War over, and the Soviet forces retreated from Afghanistan.
[113]
In 1991, the two countries were partners in the
Gulf War
against
Iraq
, a longtime Soviet ally. On 31 July 1991, the
START I
treaty cutting the number of deployed nuclear warheads of both countries was signed by Gorbachev and Bush. START negotiated the largest and most complex arms control treaty in history, and its final implementation in late 2001 resulted in the removal of about 80% of all strategic nuclear weapons then in existence.
[114]
Reagan and Gorbachev had eased Cold War tensions during Reagan's second term, but Bush was initially skeptical of Soviet intentions.
[115]
During the first year of his tenure, Bush pursued what Soviets referred to as the
pauza
, a break in Reagan's detente policies.
[116]
While Bush implemented his
pauza
policy in 1989, Soviet satellites in Eastern Europe challenged Soviet domination.
[117]
Bush helped convince Polish Communist leaders to
allow democratic elections in June
, won by the anti-Communists. In 1989, Communist governments fell in all the satellites, with significant violence only in Romania. In November 1989, massive popular demand forced the government of
East Germany
to open the
Berlin Wall
, and it was soon demolished by Berliners.
[118]
Gorbachev refused to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the
Brezhnev Doctrine
.
[119]
Within a few weeks Communist regimes across Eastern Europe collapsed, and Soviet-supported parties across the globe became demoralized. The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided the appearance of gloating over the NATO victory to avoid undermining further democratic reforms, especially in the USSR.
[120]
[121]
Bush and Gorbachev met in December 1989 at the
summit on the island of Malta
. Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev throughout the remainder of his term, putting his trust in Gorbachev to suppress the remaining Soviet hard-liners.
[122]
The key issue at the Malta Summit was the potential
reunification of Germany
.
[123]
While Britain and France were wary of a re-unified Germany, Bush pushed for German reunification alongside West German Chancellor
Helmut Kohl
.
[124]
Gorbachev resisted the idea of a reunified Germany, especially if it became part of
NATO
, but the upheavals of the previous year had sapped his power at home and abroad.
[125]
Gorbachev agreed to hold "Two-Plus-Four" talks among the United States, the Soviet Union, France, Britain, West Germany, and East Germany, which commenced in 1990. After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev eventually agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO. With the signing of the
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
, Germany officially reunified in October 1990.
[126]
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
[
edit
]
While Gorbachev acquiesced to the democratization of Soviet satellite states, he suppressed separatist movements within the Soviet Union itself.
[127]
Stalin had
occupied
and annexed the
Baltic states
of
Lithuania
,
Latvia
, and
Estonia
in the 1940s. The old leadership was executed or deported or fled; hundreds of thousands of Russians moved in, but nowhere were they a majority. Hatreds simmered. Lithuania's March 1990
proclamation of independence
was strongly opposed by Gorbachev, who feared that the Soviet Union could fall apart if he allowed Lithuania's independence. The United States had never recognized the Soviet incorporation of the Baltic states, and the crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position. Bush needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany, and he feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands. The Bush administration mildly protested Gorbachev's suppression of Lithuania's independence movement, but took no action to directly intervene.
[128]
Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the "
Chicken Kiev speech
", he cautioned against "suicidal nationalism".
[129]
In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)
treaty, the first major arms agreement since the 1987
Intermediate Ranged Nuclear Forces Treaty
.
[130]
Both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent, and the Soviet Union promised to reduce its
intercontinental ballistic missile
force by 50 percent.
[131]
Along with this, American businesses started to enter the liberalized Soviet economy, leading to famous U.S. companies opening their stores in Russia. Perhaps, the most famous example is
McDonald's
, who first restaurant in Moscow led to cultural shock on behalf of bewildered Soviet citizens, who stood in huge lines to buy American fast food.
[132]
The first McDonald's in the country had a grand opening on Moscow's
Pushkin Square
on 31 January 1990 with approximately 38,000 customers waiting in hours long lines, breaking company records at the time.
[133]
In August 1991, hard-line conservative Communists launched a
coup attempt
against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government.
[134]
Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as
general secretary of the Communist party
, and
Russian
President
Boris Yeltsin
ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until 25 December 1991, when the USSR
dissolved
.
[135]
Fifteen states
emerged from the Soviet Union, with by far the largest and most populous one (which also was the founder of the Soviet state with the
October Revolution
in Petrograd), the
Russian Federation
, taking full responsibility for all the rights and obligations of the USSR under the Charter of the United Nations, including the financial obligations. As such, Russia assumed the Soviet Union's
UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council
, nuclear stockpile and the control over the armed forces; Soviet embassies abroad became Russian embassies.
[136]
Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership".
[137]
In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to
START II
, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.
[138]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
Kennen, George F. (1956).
Russia Leaves the War: Soviet?American Relations, 1917?1920
. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press
. pp. 12?16.
ISBN
0-691-00841-8
.
LCCN
56-8382
.
- ^
"U.S. Recognition of Russia's Provisional Government"
.
U.S.?Russia Relations
. Retrieved
26 June
2022
.
- ^
"United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two"
.
U.S. Department of State
– via Office of the Historian.
- ^
Wilson, Woodrow (2 April 1917).
"Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Germany"
.
National Archives
.
- ^
a
b
Ingram, Alton Earl (1970).
The Root Mission to Russia, 1917
(PhD dissertation). Louisiana State University.
doi
:
10.31390/gradschool_disstheses.1786
. Paper 1786 – via
Digital Commons
.
- ^
"Russian Embassy Shocked By Revolt"
.
The New York Times
. 16 March 1917. p. 3.
- ^
a
b
Fic, Victor M (1995),
The Collapse of American Policy in Russia and Siberia, 1918
, Columbia University Press, New York
- ^
a
b
c
MacMillan, Margaret, 1943- (2003).
Paris 1919 : six months that changed the world
. Holbrooke, Richard (First U.S. ed.). New York: Random House. pp.
63?82
.
ISBN
0-375-50826-0
.
OCLC
49260285
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
"Fourteen Points | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)"
.
encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net
. Retrieved
8 February
2020
.
- ^
"Fourteen Points | Text & Significance"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Retrieved
7 February
2020
.
- ^
Donald E. Davis and Eugene P. Trani (2009).
Distorted Mirrors: Americans and Their Relations with Russia and China in the Twentieth Century
. University of Missouri Press. p. 48.
ISBN
9780826271891
.
- ^
Benjamin M. Weissman, "Herbert Hoover and the famine in Soviet Russia, 1921-23" in Mark Hatfield, ed.
Herbert Hoover Reassessed
(1981) pp 390?396.
- ^
Bertrand M. Patenaude, "A Race against Anarchy: Even after the Great War ended, famine and chaos threatened Europe. Herbert Hoover rescued the continent, reviving trade, rebuilding infrastructure, and restoring economic order, holding a budding Bolshevism in check."
Hoover Digest
2 (2020): 183-200
online
- ^
See Lance Yoder's "Historical Sketch" in the online
Mennonite Central Committee Photograph Collection
Archived
February 4, 2012, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
See David McFadden et al.,
Constructive Spirit: Quakers in Revolutionary Russia
(2004).
- ^
Charles M. Edmondson, "An Inquiry into the Termination of Soviet Famine Relief Programmes and the Renewal of Grain Export, 1922?23",
Soviet Studies,
Vol. 33, No. 3 (1981), pp. 370?385
- ^
Douglas Little, "Anti-Bolshevism and American Foreign Policy, 1919-1939"
American Quarterly
(1983) 35#4 pp 376-390 at p 378.
- ^
Little, p 178
- ^
Little, p 378-79.
- ^
Little, p 379.
- ^
Kendall E. Bailes, "The American Connection: Ideology and the Transfer of American Technology to the Soviet Union, 1917?1941."
Comparative Studies in Society and History
23#3 (1981): 421-448.
- ^
Dana G. Dalrymple, "The American tractor comes to Soviet agriculture: The transfer of a technology."
Technology and Culture
5.2 (1964): 191-214.
- ^
Michael J. Heale,
American anti-communism: combating the enemy within, 1830-1970
(1990).
- ^
"KGB Deep Background: Reference Detail"
.
www.pbs.org
. Retrieved
7 December
2021
.
- ^
Barrett, George A. (16 November 1946).
"AMTORG PRESIDENT RETURNS TO RUSSIA TO 'RESIGN' HIS POST; Michael Guisov Recalled by Moscow in Shake-Up of Huge Soviet Trade Agency NO EXPLANATION IS GIVEN But Departure Coincided With Protests Over 'Litter,' Nude Bathing on Morgan Estate"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
7 December
2021
.
- ^
Metcalf, James Farol (2009).
"Electric History"
. James Farol Metcalf
. Retrieved
22 January
2017
.
- ^
Zelchenko, Henry L. (February 1952). "Stealing America's Know-How: The Story of Amtorg".
American Mercury
.
74
(338): 75?84.
- ^
Benson, Robert Louis; Warner, Michael (1996).
"Venona Soviet Espionage and the American Response 1939-1957"
. p. xxviii
. Retrieved
17 September
2021
.
- ^
Benson, Robert Louis; Warner, Michael (1996).
"Venona Soviet Espionage and the American Response 1939-1957"
. p. x, xiv, 180
. Retrieved
17 September
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Deal-maker Armand Hammer Moscow's capitalist comrade"
.
Christian Science Monitor
. 3 July 1980.
ISSN
0882-7729
. Retrieved
28 January
2022
.
- ^
Flanigan, James (7 December 1988).
"Soviets Failing a Lesson Taught by Henry Ford"
.
Los Angeles Times
. Retrieved
28 January
2022
.
- ^
"Rich and red: The USSR's prize assets | Harvey Klehr"
.
The Critic Magazine
. 19 September 2020
. Retrieved
30 January
2022
.
- ^
"THE RIDDLE OF ARMAND HAMMER"
.
The New York Times
. 29 November 1981.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
30 January
2022
.
- ^
"ARMAND HAMMER: TINKER, TRAITOR, SATYR, SPY A SCATHING NEW BIOGRAPHY PAINTS THE GLOBETROTTING FOUNDER OF OCCIDENTAL PETROLEUM AS A BLATANT OPPORTUNIST, A WOMANIZER--AND PERHAPS EVEN A SOVIET SPY. - November 11, 1996"
.
money.cnn.com
. Retrieved
30 January
2022
.
- ^
Melnikova-Raich, Sonia (2011). "The Soviet Problem with Two 'Unknowns': How an American Architect and a Soviet Negotiator Jump-Started the Industrialization of Russia, Part II: Saul Bron".
IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology
.
37
(1/2): 5?28.
ISSN
0160-1040
.
JSTOR
23757906
.
- ^
a
b
"May 31: Henry Ford cuts a deal with the USSR, and changes world history, on this date in 1929"
.
autos.yahoo.com
. Retrieved
28 January
2022
.
- ^
Austin, Richard Cartwright (2004).
Building Utopia: Erecting Russia's First Modern City, 1930
. Kent State University Press.
ISBN
978-1-61277-321-6
.
OCLC
819325601
.
- ^
Agreement Between the Ford Motor Company, the Supreme Council of National Economy, and the Amtorg Trading Corporation, May 31, 1929, Amtorg Records 1929?1930, Acc. 199, box 1a, Benson Ford Research Center, The Henry Ford, Dearborn, Mich.
- ^
"THE RIDDLE OF ARMAND HAMMER"
.
The New York Times
. 29 November 1981.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
30 January
2022
.
- ^
Robert Paul Browder,
The origins of Soviet-American diplomacy
(1953) pp 99-127
Online
- ^
Robert P. Browder, "The First Encounter: Roosevelt and the Russians, 1933"
United States Naval Institute proceedings
(May 1957) 83#5 pp 523-32.
- ^
The destruction of Orthodox churches and monuments in the USSR (1927-1932)
- ^
10 beautiful Moscow churches destroyed in Soviet times
- ^
Robert Dallek (1979).
Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945: With a New Afterword
. Oxford UP. pp. 78?81.
ISBN
9780195357059
.
- ^
Paul F. Boller (1996).
Not So!: Popular Myths about America from Columbus to Clinton
. Oxford UP. pp. 110?14.
ISBN
9780195109726
.
- ^
Justus D. Doenecke and Mark A. Stoler (2005).
Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933-1945
. pp. 18. 121.
ISBN
9780847694167
.
- ^
Joan H. Wilson, "American Business and the Recognition of the Soviet Union."
Social Science Quarterly
(1971): 349-368.
in JSTOR
- ^
Will Brownell and Richard Billings,
So Close to Greatness: The Biography of William C. Bullitt
(1988)
- ^
Edward Moore Bennett,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the search for security: American-Soviet relations, 1933-1939
(1985).
- ^
"National Affairs: Anniversary Remembrance"
.
Time
. Time magazine. 2 July 1951. Archived from
the original
on 23 November 2010
. Retrieved
12 October
2013
.
- ^
Alexrod, Alan
(2009).
The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past
. Sterling. p. 44.
ISBN
9781402763021
.
- ^
"Краткий курс истории. Так учились ≪дружить≫"
(in Russian). история.рф. 23 July 2017.
- ^
"Трумэн и его доктрина"
(in Russian). Историк. March 2021.
- ^
"American-Russian Cultural Association"
. roerich-encyclopedia
. Retrieved
16 October
2015
.
- ^
"Annual Report"
. onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu
. Retrieved
30 November
2015
.
- ^
Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) p. 28, 30, 31
- ^
Lend-Lease Shipments: World War II
, Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, 31 December 1946, p. 8.
- ^
Hardesty 1991
, p. 253
- ^
World War II The War Against Germany And Italy
Archived
6 May 2017 at the
Wayback Machine
, US Army Center Of Military History, page 158.
- ^
"The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia"
.
Engines of the Red Army
. Archived from
the original
on 4 September 2013
. Retrieved
12 July
2014
.
- ^
Motter, T.H. Vail (1952).
The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia
. Center of Military History. pp. 4?6
. Retrieved
12 July
2014
.
- ^
a
b
Weeks 2004
, p. 9
- ^
Deane, John R. 1947. The Strange Alliance, The Story of Our Efforts at Wartime Co-operation with Russia. The Viking Press.
- ^
"The Executive of the Presidents Soviet Protocol Committee (Burns) to the President's Special Assistant (Hopkins)"
.
www.history.state.gov
.
Office of the Historian
.
- ^
FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1949, EASTERN EUROPE; THE SOVIET UNION, VOLUME V, S/S?NSC Files, Lot 63 D 351, NSC 58 Series, Report to the President by the National Security Council 1
- ^
Marshall Plan (1948)
- ^
Wretched Misconduct of the Red Army
- ^
The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955?1969
Laurien Crump Routledge, pp. 17, 11 February 2015
- ^
The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955?1969
Laurien Crump Routledge, p. 1, 11 February 2015
- ^
This day in history: the Warsaw Pact ends
- ^
"Berlin Wall"
.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
.
- ^
Berlin Wall
- ^
8 Spies Who Leaked Atomic Bomb Intelligence to the Soviets
- ^
Christopher Andrew,
The Sword And The Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB
(1999).
- ^
Raymond L. Garthoff, "Foreign intelligence and the historiography of the Cold War."
Journal of Cold War Studies
6.2 (2004): 21-56.
- ^
Michael F. Hopkins, "Continuing debate and new approaches in Cold War history."
Historical Journal
50.4 (2007): 913-934.
- ^
Donald J. Raleigh, "'I Speak Frankly Because You Are My Friend': Leonid Ilich Brezhnev's Personal Relationship with Richard M. Nixon."
Soviet & Post-Soviet Review
(2018) 45#2 pp 151-182.
- ^
Craig Daigle (2012).
The Limits of Detente: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1969-1973
. Yale UP. pp. 273?78.
ISBN
978-0300183344
.
- ^
Barbara Keys, "Nixon/Kissinger and Brezhnev."
Diplomatic History
42.4 (2018): 548-551.
- ^
"The Rise and Fall of Detente, Professor Branislav L. Slantchev, Department of Political Science, University of California ? San Diego 2014"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 23 October 2014
. Retrieved
22 July
2014
.
- ^
Nuti, Leopoldo (11 November 2008).
The Crisis of Detente in Europe
.
ISBN
9780203887165
. Retrieved
22 July
2014
.
- ^
Richard Pipes
(2001)
Communism
Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
ISBN
0-297-64688-5
- ^
Richard Pipes
(1994)
Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
. Vintage.
ISBN
0-679-76184-5
., pages 401–403.
- ^
Wyszy?ski, Andrzej (1949).
Teoria dowodow s?dowych w prawie radzieckim
(PDF)
. Biblioteka Zrzeszenia Prawnikow Demokratow. pp. 153, 162. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 29 July 2018
. Retrieved
10 March
2023
.
- ^
Thomas, Daniel C. (2005).
"Human Rights Ideas, the Demise of Communism, and the End of the Cold War"
.
Journal of Cold War Studies
.
7
(2): 110?141.
doi
:
10.1162/1520397053630600
.
S2CID
57570614
.
- ^
Yergin, Daniel (5 April 2011).
The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power
. Simon and Schuster. p. 557.
ISBN
978-1-4391-3483-2
.
- ^
a
b
"Deal-maker Armand Hammer Moscow's capitalist comrade"
.
Christian Science Monitor
. 3 July 1980.
ISSN
0882-7729
. Retrieved
7 November
2021
.
- ^
a
b
"THE RIDDLE OF ARMAND HAMMER"
.
The New York Times
. 29 November 1981.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
7 November
2021
.
- ^
Loth, W. (1 January 2001).
"Moscow, Prague and Warsaw: Overcoming the Brezhnev Doctrine"
.
Cold War History
.
1
(2): 103?118.
doi
:
10.1080/713999924
.
ISSN
1468-2745
.
S2CID
153874504
.
- ^
"Easing China-US Tensions: Lessons From Nixon's 1972 Trip"
.
thediplomat.com
. Retrieved
29 May
2022
.
- ^
"NIXON IN APPEAL ON SOVIET TRADE"
.
The New York Times
. 5 October 1973.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
7 December
2021
.
- ^
Herring, George C. (2008).
From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776
. Oxford University Press. p. 804.
ISBN
978-0-19-507822-0
.
- ^
Pomeranz, William E.
"The Legacy and Consequences of Jackson-Vanik: Reassessing Human Rights in 21st Century Russia"
.
www.wilsoncenter.org
. Retrieved
21 October
2021
.
- ^
"Jimmy Carter and the Second Yemenite War: A Smaller Shock of 1979? | Wilson Center"
.
www.wilsoncenter.org
. Retrieved
29 May
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
G, Jeffrey.
"The Soviet Grain Embargo"
.
The Heritage Foundation
. Retrieved
13 November
2021
.
- ^
Walsh, Edward; Goshko, John M. (3 January 1980).
"U.S. Ambassador to Moscow Recalled"
.
The Washington Post
.
ISSN
0190-8286
. Retrieved
13 November
2021
.
- ^
Brown, James D. J. (1 January 2013).
"Oil Fueled? The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan"
.
Post-Soviet Affairs
.
29
(1): 56?94.
doi
:
10.1080/1060586X.2013.778543
.
ISSN
1060-586X
.
S2CID
153875812
.
- ^
Times, Clyde H. Farnsworth New York (19 January 1980).
"In Shift, Carter Curbs Soviet Ammonia; Ammonia Import Quotas"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
7 December
2021
.
- ^
Robert L. Paarlberg, "Lessons of the grain embargo." Foreign Affairs 59.1 (1980): 144-162.
online
- ^
"Ronald Reagan, radio broadcast on August 7th, 1978"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
22 July
2014
.
- ^
"Ronald Reagan. January 29, 1981 press conference"
. Presidency.ucsb.edu. 29 January 1981
. Retrieved
22 July
2014
.
- ^
"Detente Wanes as Soviets Quarantine Satellites from Polish Fever"
.
Washington Post
. 19 October 1980.
- ^
Simes, Dimitri K. (1980). "The Death of Detente?".
International Security
.
5
(1): 3?25.
doi
:
10.2307/2538471
.
JSTOR
2538471
.
S2CID
154098316
.
- ^
Andrew Glass.
"Carter withdraws SALT II accord, Jan. 2, 1980"
.
POLITICO
. Retrieved
29 May
2022
.
- ^
Uenuma, Francine (27 April 2022).
"The 1983 Military Drill That Nearly Sparked Nuclear War With the Soviets"
.
Smithsonian Magazine
.
- ^
"Towards an International History of the War in Afghanistan, 1979?89"
. The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. 2002. Archived from
the original
on 11 October 2007
. Retrieved
16 May
2007
.
- ^
Douglas C. Rossinow,
The Reagan Era: A History of the 1980s
(2015). pp. 66?67
- ^
James Patterson,
Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore
(2005). p. 200
- ^
Patterson, pp. 205
- ^
Rossinow, p. 67
- ^
Zubok, Vladislav M.
A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev
(2007)
excerpt and text search
- ^
Soviets begin withdrawal from Afghanistan
- ^
Stuart Polen, "START I: A Retrospective."
Illini Journal of International Security
3.1 (2017): 21-36
online
.
- ^
Timothy Naftali,
George H. W. Bush
(2007) pp. 67-68
- ^
Greene, pp. 110?112
- ^
John Robert Greene,
The Presidency of George Bush
(2nd ed. 2015) p. 119
- ^
Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropaisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe fur den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall ? German), in: Profil 9 August 2014.
- ^
George C. Herring,
From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776
(2008) pp 904-6.
- ^
Mary E. Sarotte, "In victory, magnanimity: US foreign policy, 1989?1991, and the legacy of prefabricated multilateralism."
International Politics
48.4-5 (2011): 482-495.
- ^
Zbigniew Brzezinski, "The Cold War and Its Aftermath"
Foreign Affairs
71#4 (1992), pp. 31-49
online
- ^
Naftali,
George H. W. Bush
(2007), pp. 91-93
- ^
Greene, p. 126
- ^
Heilbrunn, Jacob (31 March 1996).
"Together Again"
.
The New York Times
.
- ^
Herring, pp. 906?907
- ^
Greene, pp. 134?137
- ^
Greene, pp. 120?121
- ^
Herring, p. 907
- ^
Herring, pp. 913?914
- ^
"1991: Superpowers to cut nuclear warheads"
.
BBC News
. 31 July 1991.
- ^
Greene, p. 204
- ^
Символ перемен. Как в России открывался первый "Макдоналдс"
- ^
Maynes, Charles (1 February 2020).
"McDonald's Marks 30 Years in Russia"
.
Voice of America
. Retrieved
16 March
2022
.
- ^
Naftali,
George H. W. Bush
(2007), pp 137-138
- ^
Greene, pp. 205?206
- ^
Letter to the Secretary-General of the United Nations from the President of the Russian Federation
- ^
Jussi Hanhimaki; Georges-Henri Soutou; Basil Germond (2010).
The Routledge Handbook of Transatlantic Security
. Routledge. p. 501.
ISBN
9781136936074
.
- ^
Ruud van Dijk; et al. (2013).
Encyclopedia of the Cold War
. Routledge. pp. 860?51.
ISBN
978-1135923112
.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Hardesty, Von (1991) [1982].
Red phoenix : the rise of Soviet air power, 1941?1945
. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
ISBN
0-87474-510-1
.
- Smith, Jean Edward
(2007).
FDR
. New York: Random House.
ISBN
9781400061211
.
858pp
- Weeks, Albert L. (2004),
Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II
, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books,
ISBN
978-0-7391-0736-2
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bennett, Edward M.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Search for Security: American-Soviet Relations, 1933-1939
(1985)
- Bennett, Edward M.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Search for Victory: American-Soviet Relations, 1939-1945
(1990).
- Browder, Robert P. "The First Encounter: Roosevelt and the Russians, 1933"
United States Naval Institute proceedings
(May 1957) 83#5 pp 523?32.
- Browder, Robert P.
The origins of Soviet-American diplomacy
(1953) pp 99?127
Online
- Butler, Susan.
Roosevelt and Stalin: Portrait of a Partnership
(Vintage, 2015).
- Cohen, Warren I.
The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Vol. IV: America in the Age of Soviet Power, 1945-1991
(1993).
- Crockatt, Richard.
The Fifty Years War: The United States and the Soviet Union in world politics, 1941-1991
(1995).
- Dallek, Robert.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932?1945
(Oxford University Press. 1979), a major scholarly study.\;
online
- Diesing, Duane J.
Russia and the United States: Future Implications of Historical Relationships
(No. Au/Acsc/Diesing/Ay09. Air Command And Staff Coll Maxwell Afb Al, 2009).
online
Archived
20 June 2017 at the
Wayback Machine
- Downing, Taylor.
1983: Reagan, Andropov, and a World on the Brink
(Hachette UK, 2018).
- Dunbabin, J.P.D.
International Relations since 1945: Vol. 1: The Cold War: The Great Powers and their Allies
(1994).
- Feis, Herbert.
Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War They Waged and the Peace They Sought
(1957)
online
; a major scholarly study
- Fenby, Jonathan.
Alliance: The Inside Story of How Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill Won One War and Began Another
(2015)
excerpt
; popular history
- Fike, Claude E. "The Influence of the Creel Committee and the American Red Cross on Russian-American Relations, 1917-1919."
Journal of Modern History
31#2 (1959): 93?109.
online
.
- Fischer, Ben B.
A Cold War conundrum: the 1983 soviet war scare
(Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1997).
online
- Foglesong, David S.
The American mission and the 'Evil Empire': the crusade for a 'Free Russia' since 1881
(2007).
- Gaddis, John Lewis.
Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States
(2nd ed. 1990)
online
covers 1781-1988
- Gaddis, John Lewis.
The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947
(2000).
- Garthoff, Raymond L.
Detente and confrontation: American-Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan
(2nd ed. 1994) In-depth scholarly history covers 1969 to 1980.
online
- Garthoff, Raymond L.
The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War
(1994), In-depth scholarly history, 1981 to 1991,
online
- Glantz, Mary E.
FDR and the Soviet Union: the President's battles over foreign policy
(2005).
- Kennan, George F.
Russia Leaves the War: Soviet American Relations 1917?1920
(1956).
- LaFeber, Walter.
America, Russia, and the Cold War 1945-2006
(2008).
online 1984 edition
- Leffler, Melvyn P.
The Specter of Communism: The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1917-1953
(1994).
- Lovenstein, Meno.
American Opinion Of Soviet Russia
(1941)
online
- McNeill, William Hardy.
America, Britain, & Russia: Their Co-Operation and Conflict, 1941?1946
(1953), 820pp; comprehensive overview
- Morris, Robert L. "A Reassessment of Russian Recognition."
Historian
24.4 (1962): 470?482.
- Naleszkiewicz, Wladimir. "Technical Assistance of the American Enterprises to the Growth of the Soviet Union, 1929-1933."
Russian Review
25.1 (1966): 54-76
online
.
- Nye, Joseph S. ed.
The making of America's Soviet policy
(1984)
- Saul, Norman E.
Distant Friends: The United States and Russia, 1763-1867
(1991)
- Saul, Norman E.
Concord and Conflict: The United States and Russia, 1867-1914
(1996)
- Saul, Norman E.
War and Revolution: The United States and Russia, 1914-1921
(2001)
- Saul, Norman E.
Friends or foes? : the United States and Soviet Russia, 1921-1941
(2006)
online
- Saul, Norman E.
The A to Z of United States-Russian/Soviet Relations
(2010)
- Saul, Norman E.
Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Foreign Policy
(2014).
- Sibley, Katherine A. S. "Soviet industrial espionage against American military technology and the US response, 1930?1945."
Intelligence and National Security
14.2 (1999): 94?123.
- Smith, Gaddis.
Morality, Reason and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years
(1986), 1976-1980.
- Sokolov, Boris V. "The role of lend?lease in Soviet military efforts, 1941?1945."
Journal of Slavic Military Studies
7.3 (1994): 567?586.
- Stoler, Mark A.
Allies and Adversaries: The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Grand Alliance, and US Strategy in World War II.
(UNC Press, 2003).
- Taubman, William.
Gorbachev
(2017)
excerpt
- Taubman, William.
Khrushchev: The Man and His Era
(2012), Pulitzer Prize
- Taubman, William.
Stalin's American Policy: From Entente to Detente to Cold War
(1982).
- Trani, Eugene P. "Woodrow Wilson and the decision to intervene in Russia: a reconsideration."
Journal of Modern History
48.3 (1976): 440?461.
online
- Ulam, Adam.
Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-73
(1974), a major survey
- Ulam, Adam.
The rivals : America and Russia since World War II
(1976)
online
- Unterberger, Betty Miller. "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: The 'Acid Test' of Soviet?American Relations."
Diplomatic History
11.2 (1987): 71?90.
online
- Westad, Odd Arne ed.
Soviet-American Relations during the Carter Years
(Scandinavian University Press, 1997), 1976-1980.
- White, Christine A.
British and American Commercial Relations with Soviet Russia, 1918-1924
(UNC Press, 2017).
- Zubok, Vladislav M.
A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev
(2009)
|
---|
|
---|
Africa
| |
---|
Americas
| |
---|
Asia
| |
---|
Europe
| |
---|
Oceania
| |
---|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
---|
|
---|
Africa
| Central
| |
---|
East
| |
---|
North
| |
---|
Southern
| |
---|
West
| |
---|
|
---|
Americas
| Caribbean
| |
---|
Central
| |
---|
Northern
| |
---|
South
| |
---|
|
---|
Asia
| Central
| |
---|
East
| |
---|
South
| |
---|
Southeast
| |
---|
Western
| |
---|
|
---|
Europe
| Eastern
| |
---|
Northern
| |
---|
Southern
| |
---|
Western
| |
---|
|
---|
Oceania
| Australasia
| |
---|
Melanesia
| |
---|
Micronesia
| |
---|
Polynesia
| |
---|
|
---|
Former states
| |
---|
|
|
|
|
|
---|
|
---|
Africa
| |
---|
Americas
| |
---|
Asia
| |
---|
Europe
| |
---|
Oceania
| |
---|
|
| |
|
|
|
---|
|
1940s
| |
---|
1950s
| |
---|
1960s
| |
---|
1970s
| |
---|
1980s
| |
---|
1990s
| |
---|
Frozen conflicts
| |
---|
Foreign policy
| |
---|
Ideologies
| |
---|
Organizations
| |
---|
Propaganda
| Pro-communist
| |
---|
Pro-Western
| |
---|
|
---|
Technological
competition
| |
---|
Historians
| |
---|
Espionage and
intelligence
| |
---|
See also
| |
---|
|