Overview of science and technology in Italy
Leonardo da Vinci
, a
polymath
of the
High Renaissance
who was active as a painter,
draughtsman
, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect
[1]
Galileo Galilei
, an
astronomer
,
physicist
,
engineer
, and
polymath
, played a major role in the
Scientific Revolution
. He is considered the father of
observational astronomy
,
[2]
modern physics,
[3]
the
scientific method
,
[4]
and
modern science
.
[5]
Science and technology in Italy
has a long presence, from the
Roman era
and the
Renaissance
. Through the centuries,
Italy
has advanced the scientific community which produced many significant inventions and discoveries in biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and the other sciences. In 2019, Italy was the 6th world producer of
scientific articles
publishing more than 155,000 documents.
[6]
From 1996 to 2000, it published a total of 2 million scientific articles.
[7]
Italy was ranked 28th in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2022.
[8]
History
[
edit
]
As early as the 1st century AD,
Rome
had become one of the biggest and most advanced cities in the world. The
ancient Romans
invented new technologies to improve the city's sanitation systems, roads, and buildings.
[9]
[10]
They developed a system of
aqueducts
that piped freshwater into the city, and they built sewers that removed the city's waste. The wealthiest Romans lived in large houses with gardens. Most of the population, however, lived in apartment buildings made of stone, concrete, or limestone. The Romans developed new techniques and used materials such as volcanic soil from
Pozzuoli
, a village near Naples, to make their cement harder and stronger.
[11]
This concrete allowed them to build large apartment buildings called
insulae
.
Italy had a scientific "golden age" during the Renaissance.
Leonardo da Vinci
, was trained to be a painter, but his interests and achievements spread into an astonishing variety of fields that are now considered scientific specialties. He conceived ideas vastly ahead of his time. Notably, he invented concepts for the
helicopter
, an armed fighting vehicle, the use of concentrated solar power, the calculator, a rudimentary theory of
plate tectonics
, the double hull, and many others, using inspiration from Chinese ideas.
[12]
In addition, he greatly advanced the fields of knowledge in anatomy, astronomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics.
The scientist
Galileo Galilei
is called the first modern scientist.
[13]
His work constitutes a significant break from that of
Aristotle
and medieval philosophers and scientists (who were then referred to as "natural philosophers"). Galileo's achievements include improvements to the telescope, various astronomical observations, and initial formulation of the first and second laws of motion. Galileo was suppressed by the Catholic Church, but was a founder of modern science.
[14]
Other astronomers, such as
Giovanni Domenico Cassini
and
Giovanni Schiaparelli
, made discoveries about the
Solar System
. In mathematics,
Joseph Louis Lagrange
was active before leaving Italy.
Giuseppe Peano
,
Lagrange
,
Fibonacci
, and
Gerolamo Cardano
, whose
Ars Magna
is generally recognized as the first modern treatment on mathematics, made fundamental advances to the field.
[15]
Luca Pacioli
established accounting principles. Physicist
Enrico Fermi
, a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the
first nuclear reactor
. He is considered an "architect of the
atomic bomb
".
[16]
Italian physicists
Emilio Segre
, who discovered the elements
technetium
and
astatine
, and the
antiproton
;
Bruno Rossi
, a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy; and other physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s due to
Fascist laws against Jews
.
[17]
Other physicists include
Amedeo Avogadro
(contributions to
molecular
theory),
Evangelista Torricelli
(inventor of the
barometer
),
Alessandro Volta
(inventor of the
electric battery
),
Guglielmo Marconi
(inventor of radio),
Galileo Ferraris
and
Antonio Pacinotti
(pioneers of the induction motor),
Alessandro Cruto
(pioneer of the light bulb), and
Innocenzo Manzetti
(pioneer of automatons and robotics),
Ettore Majorana
(discovered
Majorana fermions
),
Carlo Rubbia
(1984 Nobel Prize in physics), and
Antonio Meucci
(developing voice-communication device sometimes credited as the first telephone).
[18]
In 1964,
Pier Giorgio Perotto
designed one of the first desktop
programmable calculators
, the
Programma 101
.
[19]
In biology,
Francesco Redi
was the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.
Marcello Malpighi
founded
microscopic anatomy
; his student
Antonio Maria Valsalva
became famous for his research focused on the anatomy of the ears, and Valvasia pupil
Giovanni Battista Morgagni
is the anatomist generally regarded as the father of modern
anatomical pathology
.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory.
Camillo Golgi
, whose many achievements include the discovery of the
Golgi complex
.
Rita Levi-Montalcini
, who discovered the
nerve growth factor
, was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine).
Giulio Natta
received the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on high
polymers
.
Giuseppe Occhialini
received the 1979
Wolf Prize in Physics
for the discovery of the
pion
or pi-
meson
decay in 1947.
Ennio De Giorgi
, a
Wolf Prize in Mathematics
recipient in 1990, solved
Bernstein's problem
about
minimal surfaces
and the
19th Hilbert problem
on the regularity of solutions of
elliptic partial differential equations
.
[20]
The first internal combustion engine was invented by
Eugenio Barsanti
and
Felice Matteucci
, the
Barsanti-Matteucci engine
, in 1852.
[21]
[22]
It was fueled by a mix of air and hydrogen. The first gasoline internal combustion engine motor vehicle was invented by
Enrico Bernardi
in 1884.
[23]
The first pc (personal computer), the
Olivetti P6040
and the
P6060
was invented by
Olivetti
engineer
Pier Giorgio Perotto
in 1975.
[24]
Accademia dei Lincei
[
edit
]
Palazzo Corsini
in
Rome
, seat of the
Accademia dei Lincei
The
Accademia dei Lincei
(
Italian pronunciation:
[akka?d?ːmja
dei
lin?t??i]
; literally the "
Academy
of the Lynx-Eyed", but anglicised as the
Lincean Academy
) is one of the oldest and most prestigious European scientific institutions,
[25]
located at the
Palazzo Corsini
on the
Via della Lungara
in
Rome
, Italy.
Founded in the
Papal States
in 1603 by
Federico Cesi
, the academy was named after the
lynx
, an animal whose sharp vision symbolizes the observational prowess that science requires.
Galileo Galilei
was the intellectual centre of the academy and adopted "Galileo Galilei Linceo" as his signature. "The Lincei did not long survive the death in 1630 of Cesi, its founder and patron",
[26]
and "disappeared in 1651".
[27]
During the nineteenth century, it was revived, first in the Vatican and later in the nation of Italy. Thus the
Pontifical Academy of Science
, founded in 1847, claims this heritage as the
Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes")
, descending from the first two incarnations of the academy. Similarly, a lynx-eyed academy of the 1870s became the national academy of Italy, encompassing both literature and science among its concerns.
[28]
Main universities
[
edit
]
Research
[
edit
]
iCub
robot at the
Genoa Science Festival
, Italy, in 2009
The
National Research Council
(
Italian
:
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
, CNR) is the main Italian public research body. Supervised by the Ministry of university and Research,
[31]
has the task of carrying out, promoting, disseminating, transferring and enhancing scientific and technological research activities in the main sectors of knowledge development and their applications, promoting scientific progress, technological, economic and social.
[32]
According to the
scientific journal
Nature
, in 2018 the CNR ranked 10th among the most innovative public research bodies in the world for the number of scientific articles published in about 80 journals monitored by the same journal.
[33]
Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso
(LNGS) is the largest underground research center in the world.
[34]
Situated below
Gran Sasso
mountain in Italy, it is well known for
particle physics
research by the
INFN
.
[35]
In addition to a surface portion of the laboratory, there are extensive underground facilities beneath the mountain.
[36]
The nearest towns are
L'Aquila
and
Teramo
.
[37]
The facility is located about 120 km from Rome.
[37]
The primary mission of the laboratory is to host experiments that require a low background environment in the fields of
astroparticle physics
and
nuclear astrophysics
and other disciplines that can profit of its characteristics and of its infrastructures.
[37]
The LNGS is, like the three other
European
underground astroparticle laboratories (
Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane
,
Laboratorio subterraneo de Canfranc
, and
Boulby Underground Laboratory
), a member of the coordinating group
ILIAS
.
[38]
ELETTRA
,
Eurac Research
,
ESA Centre for Earth Observation
,
Institute for Scientific Interchange
,
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
,
Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation
and the
International Centre for Theoretical Physics
conduct basic research.
Trieste
has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to the population.
[39]
Italy was ranked 26th in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2023.
[40]
The country and especially the
Italian Institute of Technology
have produced some ingenious
humanoid robots
like
iCub
.
CINECA
[
edit
]
The
Fermi
IBM Blue Gene/Q
supercomputer in Cineca.
CINECA
is a non-profit consortium, made up of 69 Italian universities, 27 national public research centres, the Italian Ministry of Universities and Research (MUR) and the Italian Ministry of Education (MI), and was established in 1969 in
Casalecchio di Reno
,
Bologna
.
It is the most powerful supercomputing centre for scientific research in
Italy
,
[41]
as stated in the
TOP500
list of the most powerful supercomputers in the world: Marconi100, is ranked at the 18th position of the list as of November 2021, with about 30 P/FLOPS.
The consortium's institutional mission is to support the Italian scientific community through
supercomputing
and
scientific visualisation
tools. Since the end of the 1980s, Cineca has broadened the scope of its mission by embracing other IT sectors, developing management and administrative services for universities and designing ICT systems for the exchange of information between the MIUR and the Italian national academic system. The consortium is also strongly committed to transfer technology to many categories of users, from public administration to the private enterprises.
Today it merges the specificities and competences of the other two Italian high performance computing consortia,
CILEA
and Caspur: as a unique reference point for technology innovation in Italy, with its services Cineca supports the whole higher education and research system.
Cineca takes part in several research projects funded by the
European Union
for the promotion and development of IT technologies (
grid computing
,
bioinformatic
,
digital content
, the promotion of transnational access to European supercomputing centres, etc.).
Italian Space Agency
[
edit
]
Headquarters of the
Italian Space Agency
in
Rome
The
Italian Space Agency
(
Italian
:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana
;
ASI
) is a government agency established in 1988 to fund, regulate and coordinate
space exploration
activities in
Italy
.
[42]
[43]
The agency cooperates with numerous national and international entities who are active in aerospace research and technology.
[43]
Nationally, ASI is responsible for both drafting the National Aerospace Plan and ensuring it is carried out. To do this the agency operates as the owner/coordinator of a number of Italian space research agencies and assets such as
CIRA
as well as organising the calls and opportunities process for Italian industrial contractors on spaceflight projects. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the
European Space Agency
and to its subordinate bodies as well as representing the country's interests in foreign collaborations.
ASI's main headquarters are located in
Rome, Italy
,
[44]
and the agency also has direct control over two operational centres: the
Centre for Space Geodesy
(CGS) located in
Matera
in Italy, and its own spaceport, the
Broglio Space Centre
(formerly the
San Marco Equatorial Range
) on the coastal sublittoral of
Kenya
, currently used only as a communications ground station.
[45]
One further balloon launch base located in
Trapani
was permanently closed in 2010.
[46]
In 2020, ASI's annual revenues budget was approximately €2.0 billion
[47]
[48]
and it directly employed around 200 workers.
[43]
The three
Space Shuttle
Multi-Purpose Logistics Module
cargo containers
Leonardo
,
Raffaello
and
Donatello
, were
manufactured
at the
Cannes Mandelieu Space Center
in
Turin
,
Italy
by Alcatel Alenia Space, now
Thales Alenia Space
.
[49]
They provide a key function in storing equipment and parts for transfer to the
International Space Station
.
[50]
A number of ISS modules have also been made in Italy. As part of ESA's contribution to the costs of the International Space Station, Alcatel Alenia Space manufactured
Tranquility
,
Harmony
as well as the
Cupola
observation deck for NASA.
[51]
ESA's
Columbus
module, Western Europe's primary scientific lab on board the ISS, was again built in Turin based on Italy's previous experience in space station module construction.
[52]
On 15 December 1964, the first Italian
satellite
was launched, the
San Marco 1
,
[53]
while on 31 July 1992,
Franco Malerba
, following the
STS-46
space mission, was the first Italian to go into space.
[54]
On 23 November 2014
Samantha Cristoforetti
, following the
Expedition 42
mission, was the first Italian woman to go into space.
[55]
Science museums
[
edit
]
Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci
in
Milan
There are numerous
science museums
such as the
Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci
in
Milan
, the
Natural History Museum
in Milan, the
Citta della Scienza
in
Naples
, the
Institute and Museum of the History of Science
in
Florence
, the
Planetario di Milano
in Milan, the
Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze
in Florence and the
La Specola
in Florence.
Other Italian science museums are the
Museo Civico di Zoologia
in
Rome
, the
Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste
, the
Faraggiana Ferrandi Natural History Museum
in
Novara
, the
Federico Eusebio Civic Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences
in
Alba
, the
Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria
in
Genoa
and the
Museo del fiore
in
Acquapendente
.
Other museums are the
Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi
in
Bergamo
, the
Museo di storia naturale della Maremma
in
Grosseto
, the
Museo di Storia Naturale di Venezia
in Venice, the
Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa
in
Pisa
, the
Museum Gherdeina
in
Ortisei
, the
Natural History Museum
in
Pavia
, the
Turin Museum of Natural History
and the
Zoological Museum of Naples
.
Technology parks
[
edit
]
Technology Park of Lodi Cluster
in
Lodi
There are numerous
technology parks
in Italy such as the Science and Technology Parks Kilometro Rosso (
Bergamo
), the
AREA Science Park
(
Trieste
), The VEGA-Venice Gateway for Science and Technology (
Venice
), the Toscana Life Sciences (
Siena
), the
Technology Park of Lodi Cluster
(
Lodi
),
Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero
(
Canavese
) and the Technology Park of Navacchio (
Pisa
).
[56]
Other technology parks in the Northern Italy are the "NOI Techpark Sudtirol-Alto Adige" technology park (
Bolzano
), the "Techno Innovation Park South Tyrol" (Bolzano), the "Trentino Sviluppo" technology park (
Rovereto
), the "ComoNExT - Innovation Hub" science and technology park (
Lomazzo
), the "Servitec" science and technology park (
Dalmine
), the Technological pole (
Pavia
), the Cremona Technological Pole (
Cremona
), the CSMT Innovative Contamination Hub (
Brescia
), the "Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero" science and technology park (
Colleretto Giacosa
), the "Tecnogranda" science and technology park (
Dronero
), the Novara Development Foundation (
Novara
), the "Environment Park" technology park (
Turin
), the Science and technology park in the Scrivia Valley (
Tortona
), the "Galileo" Science and Technology Park (
Padua
), the "Star" science park (
Verona
), the Technological center (
Pordenone
), the "Luigi Danieli" Science and Technology Park (
Udine
), the "Great Campus" science and technology park (
Genoa
) and the Torricelli Park of Arts and Science Faventia (
Ravenna
).
[57]
[58]
[59]
[60]
Other technology parks in the Central and the Southern Italy are the Magona Technological Pole Consortium (
Cecina
), the Technological and archaeological park of the Grosseto Metalliferous Hills in the
province of Grosseto
, the Lucca technology center (
Lucca
), the Technological Pole (
Navacchio
), the "3A-PTA" technology park (
Todi
), the "Hub21" scientific, technological and cultural center (
Ascoli Piceno
), the "Pa.L.Mer" technology park (
Latina
), the Roman scientific pole (
Rome
), the "Tecnopolo" technological hub (Rome), the Idis-City of Science Foundation (
Naples
), the TechNapoli" technology park (
Pozzuoli
), the Science and Technology Park (
Salerno
), the "Tecnopolis" science and technology park (
Valenzano
), the "CALPARK" science and technology park (
Rende
), the "Magna Graecia" scientific, the technological and multisectoral park (
Crotone
), the Science and technology park of Sicily (
Catania
) and the Technology park of Sardinia (
Pula
).
[57]
[58]
[59]
[60]
Personality
[
edit
]
Through the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and the other sciences. During the
Renaissance
Italian polymaths such as
Leonardo da Vinci
(1452?1519),
Michelangelo
(1475?1564) and
Leon Battista Alberti
(1404?1472) made contributions in a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering.
Galileo Galilei
(1564?1642), an
astronomer
,
physicist
,
engineer
, and
polymath
, played a major role in the
Scientific Revolution
. He is considered the "father" of
observational astronomy
,
[2]
modern physics,
[3]
[67]
the
scientific method
,
[4]
modern science
.
[5]
Other astronomers such as
Giovanni Domenico Cassini
(1625?1712) and
Giovanni Schiaparelli
(1835?1910) made discoveries about the
Solar System
. In mathematics,
Joseph Louis Lagrange
(born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736?1813) was active before leaving Italy.
Fibonacci
(c. 1170 ? c. 1250), and
Gerolamo Cardano
(1501?1576) made fundamental advances in mathematics.
[68]
Luca Pacioli
established
accounting
to the world. Physicist
Enrico Fermi
(1901?1954), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the
first nuclear reactor
. He is considered the "architect of the
nuclear age
"
[66]
and the "architect of the
atomic bomb
".
[16]
He,
Emilio G. Segre
(1905?1989) who discovered the elements
technetium
and
astatine
, and the
antiproton
),
Bruno Rossi
(1905?1993) a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy) and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by
Fascist laws against Jews
.
[69]
Other prominent physicists include
Amedeo Avogadro
(most noted for his contributions to
molecular theory
, in particular the
Avogadro's law
and the
Avogadro constant
),
Evangelista Torricelli
(inventor of
barometer
),
Alessandro Volta
(inventor of
electric battery
),
Guglielmo Marconi
(inventor of
radio
),
Galileo Ferraris
and
Antonio Pacinotti
, pioneers of the induction motor,
Alessandro Cruto
, pioneer of light bulb and
Innocenzo Manzetti
, eclectic pioneer of auto and robotics,
Ettore Majorana
(who discovered the
Majorana fermions
),
Carlo Rubbia
(1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the
W and Z particles
at
CERN
).
Antonio Meucci
is known for developing a voice-communication device which is often credited as the first
telephone
.
[70]
[71]
Pier Giorgio Perotto
in 1964 designed one of the first desktop
programmable calculators
, the
Programma 101
.
[72]
[73]
[74]
In biology,
Francesco Redi
has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details and
Marcello Malpighi
founded
microscopic anatomy
,
Lazzaro Spallanzani
conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory,
Camillo Golgi
, whose many achievements include the discovery of the
Golgi complex
, paved the way to the acceptance of the
Neuron doctrine
,
Rita Levi-Montalcini
discovered the
nerve growth factor
(awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry,
Giulio Natta
received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high
polymers
.
Giuseppe Occhialini
received the
Wolf Prize in Physics
for the discovery of the
pion
or pi-
meson
decay in 1947.
Ennio De Giorgi
, a
Wolf Prize in Mathematics
recipient in 1990, solved
Bernstein's problem
about
minimal surfaces
and the
19th Hilbert problem
on the regularity of solutions of
Elliptic partial differential equations
.
[75]
Inventions and discoveries
[
edit
]
The
Barsanti-Matteucci engine
, the first proper internal combustion engine.
Italian inventions and discoveries
are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, by
Italians
.
Italian people ? living in the
Italic peninsula
or abroad ? have been throughout history
[76]
the source of important
inventions
and
innovations
in the fields of
writing
,
[77]
[78]
calendar
,
[79]
mechanical
[80]
and
civil engineering
,
[81]
[82]
[83]
[84]
musical notation
,
[85]
celestial observation
,
[86]
perspective
,
[87]
warfare
,
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
long distance
communication
,
[92]
[93]
[94]
storage
[95]
and
production
[96]
[97]
of
energy
,
modern medicine
,
[98]
polymerization
[99]
[100]
and
information technology
.
[101]
[102]
Italians also contributed in theorizing
civil law
,
[103]
[104]
scientific method
(particularly in the fields of
physics
and
astronomy
),
[105]
double-entry bookkeeping
,
[106]
mathematical
algebra
[107]
and
analysis
,
[108]
[109]
classical
and
celestial
mechanics.
[110]
[111]
Often, things
discovered
for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.
Nobel Prizes
[
edit
]
Year
|
Winner
|
Branch
|
Contribution
|
1906
|
Camillo Golgi
|
Medicine
|
"In recognition of his work on the structure of the nervous system".
[112]
|
1909
|
Guglielmo Marconi
|
Physics
|
"In recognition of his contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".
[65]
[113]
[114]
|
1938
|
Enrico Fermi
|
Physics
|
"For his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons."
[115]
|
1957
|
Daniel Bovet
|
Medicine
|
"For his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles."
[116]
|
1959
|
Emilio Gino Segre
|
Physics
|
"For his discovery of the anti-proton."
[117]
|
1963
|
Giulio Natta
|
Chemistry
|
"For his discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers."
[118]
|
1969
|
Salvatore Luria
|
Medicine
|
"For his discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses."
[119]
|
1975
|
Renato Dulbecco
|
Medicine
|
"For his discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell."
[120]
|
1984
|
Carlo Rubbia
|
Physics
|
"For his decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction."
[121]
|
1986
|
Rita Levi-Montalcini
|
Medicine
|
"For her discoveries in growth factors."
[122]
|
2002
|
Riccardo Giacconi
|
Physics
|
"For pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources."
[123]
|
2007
|
Mario Capecchi
|
Medicine
|
"For his discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells."
[124]
|
2021
|
Giorgio Parisi
|
Physics
|
"For the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales."
[125]
|
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Kemp, Martin
(2003).
"Leonardo da Vinci"
.
Grove Art Online
. Oxford:
Oxford University Press
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Cocco, Sean.
Watching Vesuvius: A History of Science and Culture in Early Modern Italy
(2012)
- Cocco, Sean. "Locating the Natural Sciences in Early Modern Naples," ch 20 in
A Companion to Early Modern Naples
(2013) pp: 453+.
- Galdabini, Silvana, and Giuseppe Giuliani. "Physics in Italy between 1900 and 1940: The universities, physicists, funds, and research."
Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences
(1988): 115?136.
in JSTOR
- Miele, Aldo
, ed.
Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni
. Vol. 1, Part 1 (Nardecchia, 1921)
- Orlando, Lucia. "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy."
Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences
(1998): 141-181.
in JSTOR
- Pancaldi, Giuliano. "Vito volterra: Cosmopolitan ideals and nationality in the Italian scientific community between the belle epoque and the first world war."
Minerva
(1993) 31#1 pp: 21?37.
- Schmitt, Charles B.
Science in the Italian universities in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries
(Macmillan, 1975)
- Turchetti, Simone.
The Pontecorvo Affair: A Cold War Defection and Nuclear Physics
(University of Chicago Press, 2012)
External links
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edit
]
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