Act of removing part of the human scalp with hair still attached
Karl Bodmer
's 1844
aquatint
Scalp Dance of the Minitarres
depicts
Siouan
Hidatsa
people in a scalp dance.
Scalping
is the act of cutting or tearing a part of the human
scalp
, with hair attached, from the head, and generally occurred in warfare with the scalp being a
trophy
.
[1]
Scalp-taking is considered part of the broader cultural practice of the taking and display of human body parts as trophies, and may have developed as an alternative to the taking of human heads, for scalps were easier to take, transport, and preserve for subsequent display. Scalping independently developed in various cultures in both the
Old
and
New Worlds
.
[2]
Europe
[
edit
]
One of the earliest examples of scalping dates back to the
mesolithic
period, found at a hunter-gatherer cemetery in
Sweden
.
[3]
Several human remains from the stone-age
Ertebølle culture
in
Denmark
show evidence of scalping.
[4]
A man found in a grave in the
Alvastra pile-dwelling
in Sweden had been scalped approximately 5,000 years ago.
[5]
Georg Frederici noted that “
Herodotus
provided the only clear and satisfactory portrayal of a scalping people in the old world” in his description of the
Scythians
, a nomadic people then located to the north and west of the Black Sea.
[6]
Herodotus related that Scythian warriors would behead the enemies they defeated in battle and present the heads to their king to claim their share of the plunder. Then, the warrior would skin the head “by making a circular cut round the ears and shaking out the skull; he then scrapes the flesh off the skin with the rib of an ox, and when it is clean works it with his fingers until it is supple, and fit to be used as a sort of handkerchief. He hangs these handkerchiefs on the bridle of his horse, and is very proud of them. The best man is the man who has the greatest number.”
[7]
Ammianus Marcellinus
noted the taking of scalps by the
Alani
in terms quite similar to those used by Herodotus.
[8]
The Abbe
Emmanuel H. D. Domenech
referred to the
decalvare
of the ancient
Germans
and the
capillos et cutem detrahere
of the code of the
Visigoths
as examples of scalping in early
medieval Europe
,
[9]
though some more recent interpretations of these terms relate them to shaving off the hair of the head as a legal punishment rather than scalping.
[10]
In England in 1036,
Earl Godwin
, father of
Harold Godwinson
, was reportedly responsible for scalping his enemies, among whom was
Alfred Aetheling
. According to the ancient
Abingdon manuscript
, 'some of them were blinded, some maimed, some scalped. No more horrible deed was done in this country since the
Danes
came and made peace here'.
[11]
In 1845, mercenary John Duncan observed what he estimated to be 700 scalps taken in warfare and displayed as trophies by a contingent of female soldiers?
Dahomey Amazons
?employed by the King of Dahomey (present-day
Republic of Benin
). Duncan noted that these would have been taken and kept over a long period of time and would not have come from a single battle. Although Duncan travelled widely in Dahomey, and described customs such as the taking of heads and the retention of skulls as trophies, nowhere else does he mention scalping.
[12]
[13]
Occasional instances of scalping of dead Axis troops by Allied military personnel are known from
World War II
. While many of these instances took place in the Pacific Theater, along with more extreme forms of trophy-hunting (see
American mutilation of Japanese war dead
), occasional instances are reported in the European Theater as well. One particularly widely reported, although disputed, case involves that of German general Friedrich Kussin, the commandant of the town of Arnhem who was ambushed and killed by British paratroopers in the early stages of
Operation Market Garden
.
[14]
Asia
[
edit
]
There is physical evidence that scalping was practiced during the
Longshan
and
Erlitou
periods in China's central plain.
[15]
A skull from an Iron Age cemetery in
South Siberia
shows evidence of scalping. It lends physical evidence to the practice of scalp taking by the
Scythians
living there.
[16]
Some evidence is also found in the
Indian Subcontinent
.
Bhai Taru Singh
(
c.
1720
? 1 July 1745)
[17]
was a prominent
Sikh martyr
known for sacrificing his life, in the name of protecting
Sikh
values, by having had his head scalped rather than
cutting his hair
and
converting to Islam.
[18]
[19]
Americas
[
edit
]
Illustration of a scalp dance from the 1919 edition of 1884 children's book
Indian History for Young Folks
by Francis S. Drake
[20]
Scalping in the Americas predominantly arose from the practices of Indian tribes, and was later copied by European colonists on the continent.
[21]
Techniques
[
edit
]
Specific scalping techniques varied somewhat from place to place, depending on the cultural patterns of the scalper regarding the desired shape, size, and intended use of the severed scalp, and on how the victims wore their hair, but the general process of scalping was quite uniform:
They seize the head of the disabled or dead enemy, and placing one of their feet on the neck, twist their left hand in the hair; by this means, having extended the skin that covers the top of the head, they draw out their scalping knives, which are always kept in good order for this cruel purpose, and with a few dextrous strokes take off the part that is termed the scalp. They are so expeditious in doing this, that the whole time required scarcely exceeds a minute.
[22]
The scalp separated from the skull along the plane of the
areolar connective tissue
, the fourth (and least substantial) of the five layers of the human scalp. Scalping was not in itself fatal, though it was most commonly inflicted on the gravely wounded or the dead. The earliest instruments used in scalping were stone knives crafted of
flint
,
chert
, or
obsidian
, or other materials like
reeds
or
oyster
shells that could be worked to carry an edge equal to the task. Collectively, such tools were also used for a variety of everyday tasks like skinning and processing game, but were replaced by metal knives acquired in trade through European contact. The implement, often referred to as a "scalping knife" in popular
American
and European literature, was not known as such by
Native Americans
, a knife being for them just a simple and effective multi-purpose utility tool for which scalping was but one of many uses.
[23]
[24]
Intertribal conflict
[
edit
]
1732 illustration by Alexandre de Batz of
Choctaw
people of the
Mississippi
in
war paint
, bearing scalps
There is substantial archaeological evidence of scalping in North America in the
pre-Columbian era
.
[25]
[26]
Carbon dating of skulls show evidence of scalping as early as 600 AD; some skulls show evidence of healing from scalping injuries, suggesting at least some victims occasionally survived at least several months.
[26]
Among
Plains Indians
, it seems to have been practiced primarily as part of intertribal warfare, with scalps only taken of enemies killed in battle.
[26]
However, author and historian Mark van de Logt wrote, "Although military historians tend to reserve the concept of 'total war
'
", in which civilians are targeted, "for conflicts between modern industrial nations," the term "closely approaches the state of affairs between the
Pawnees
, the
Sioux
, and the
Cheyennes
.
Noncombatants
were legitimate targets. Indeed, the taking of a scalp of a woman or child was considered honorable because it signified that the scalp taker had dared to enter the very heart of the enemy's territory."
[27]
Knife and Sheath
, probably
Sioux
, early 19th century,
Brooklyn Museum
Many tribes of Native Americans practiced scalping, in some instances up until the end of the 19th century. Of the approximately 500 bodies at the
Crow Creek massacre
site, 90 percent of the skulls show evidence of scalping. The event took place
circa
1325 AD.
[28]
European colonisation of the Americas increased the incidence of intertribal conflict, and consequently an increase in the prevalence of scalping.
[25]
Colonial wars
[
edit
]
1847 illustration of
Hannah Duston
scalping the sleeping
Abenaki
family, including six children, who had kidnapped her and murdered her infant after the
Raid on Haverhill (1697)
The
Connecticut
and
Massachusetts
colonies offered bounties for the heads of killed Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the
Pequot War
in the 1630s;
[29]
[30]
Connecticut specifically reimbursed
Mohegans
for slaying the
Pequot
in 1637.
[31]
Four years later, the
Dutch
in
New Amsterdam
offered bounties for the heads of
Raritans
.
[31]
In 1643, the
Iroquois
attacked a group of
Huron
pelters
and French carpenters near
Montreal
, killing and scalping three of the French.
[32]
Bounties for Indian captives or their scalps appeared in the legislation of the
American colonies
during the
Susquehannock
War (1675?77).
[33]
New England
offered bounties to white settlers and
Narragansett people
in 1675 during
King Philip's War
.
[31]
By 1692,
New France
also paid their native allies for scalps of their enemies.
[31]
In 1697, on the northern frontier of Massachusetts colony, settler
Hannah Duston
killed ten of her
Abenaki
captors during her nighttime escape, presented their ten scalps to the
Massachusetts General Assembly
, and was rewarded with bounties for two men, two women, and six children, even though Massachusetts had rescinded the law authorizing scalp bounties six months earlier.
[29]
There were six colonial wars with New England and the
Iroquois Confederacy
fighting New France and the
Wabanaki Confederacy
over a 75-year period, starting with
King William's War
in 1688. All sides scalped victims, including noncombatants, during this frontier warfare.
[34]
Bounty policies originally intended only for Native American scalps were extended to enemy colonists.
[31]
Massachusetts created a scalp bounty during King William's War in July 1689, and continued doing so during
Queen Anne's War
in 1703.
[35]
[36]
During
Father Rale's War
(1722?1725), on August 8, 1722, Massachusetts put a bounty on native families, paying 100 pounds sterling for the scalps of male Indians aged 12 and over, and 50 pounds sterling for women and children.
[30]
[37]
Ranger
John Lovewell
is known to have conducted scalp-hunting expeditions, the most famous being the
Battle of Pequawket
in New Hampshire.
[
citation needed
]
In the 1710s and 1720s, New France engaged in frontier warfare with the
Natchez people
and the
Meskwaki people
, during which both sides employed the practice.
[
citation needed
]
In response to repeated massacres of British families by the French and their native allies during
King George's War
, Massachusetts governor
William Shirley
issued a bounty in 1746 to be paid to British-allied Indians for the scalps of French-allied Indian men, women, and children.
[38]
New York passed a scalp act in 1747.
[39]
During
Father Le Loutre's War
and the
Seven Years' War
in
Nova Scotia
and
Acadia
,
French colonists
offered payments to Indians for British scalps.
[40]
In 1749, British governor
Edward Cornwallis
created an
extirpation
proclamation, which included a bounty for male scalps or prisoners. Also during the Seven Years' War, Governor of Nova Scotia
Charles Lawrence
offered a reward for male Mi'kmaq scalps in 1756.
[41]
(In 2000, some Mi'kmaq argued that this proclamation was still legal in Nova Scotia. Government officials argued that it was no longer legal because the bounty was superseded by later treaties - see the
Halifax Treaties
).
[42]
During the
French and Indian War
, as of June 12, 1755, Massachusetts governor William Shirley was offering a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of females or of children under 12 years old.
[35]
[43]
In 1756, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Governor Robert Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130
Pieces of Eight
, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years," and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."
[35]
[44]
Although much has been made of the existence of scalp bounties, generally because they have been easily accessible as statutes, little research exists on the numbers of bounties actually paid. Early frontier warfare in forested areas in the era of flintlock muzzle-loading rifles favored tomahawks and knives over firearms because of the long loading time after a shot was fired. Advantage was clearly held by bow, knife, and hatchet. Some states had a history of escalating the payout of bounties offered per scalp, presumably because lower bounties were ineffective and were not worth risking one's life in exchange for the payoff. Rising bounties were a measure of bounty system failure.
[
citation needed
]
American Revolution
[
edit
]
In the
American Revolutionary War
,
Henry Hamilton
, the British lieutenant governor and superintendent of Indian Affairs at
Fort Detroit
, was known by
American Patriots
as the "hair-buyer general" because they believed he encouraged and paid his Native American allies to scalp American settlers. As a result, when Hamilton was captured, he was treated as a
war criminal
instead of a
prisoner of war
. However, American historians have noted that there was no proof that he had ever offered rewards for scalps,
[45]
and it is now believed that no British officer paid for scalps during the
American Revolution
.
[46]
The September 13, 1779, journal entry of Lieutenant William Barton tells of patriots participating in scalping.
[47]
American
propaganda
poster circa the
War of 1812
, illustrating and poeticizing a
British
officer giving a Native man (referred to as a "
Savage
Indian") a reward for an American soldier's scalp
It is well established that the Iroquois, allied to the British during the American Revolution, practiced scalping. The most famous case was that of
Jane McCrea
, whose fiance was a Loyalist officer. She was abducted by Iroquois, loyal to the British and under the command of John Burgoyne, and ultimately scalped and shot. Her death inspired many colonists to join the fight against the British invasion from Canada, an effort which ended in defeat at the
Battle of Saratoga
.
[48]
Mexico
[
edit
]
In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of
Sonora
put a bounty on the
Apache
which,
[49]
over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.
[50]
In 1837, the Mexican state of
Chihuahua
also offered a bounty on Apache scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.
[49]
Harris Worcester wrote: "The new policy attracted a diverse group of men, including Anglos, runaway slaves led by Seminole John Horse, and Indians ?
Kirker
used
Delawares
and
Shawnees
; others, such as Terrazas, used
Tarahumaras
; and Seminole chief
Coacoochee
led a band of his own people who had fled from Indian Territory."
[51]
American Civil War
[
edit
]
Some scalping incidents occurred during the
American Civil War
of 1861-1865. For example,
Confederate
guerrillas
led by
"Bloody Bill" Anderson
were well known for decorating their saddles with the scalps of
Union soldiers
they had killed.
[52]
Archie Clement
had the reputation of being Anderson's “chief scalper”.
Continued Indian Wars
[
edit
]
In 1851, the
U.S. Army
displayed Indian scalps in
Stanislaus County, California
.
In 1851, the Tehama Massacre occurred in
Tehama County, California
, wherein U.S. military and citizens razed villages and scalped hundreds of men, women, and children.
[53]
This attack targeted Native communities specifically, in the villages of Yana, Konkow, Nisenan, Wintu, Nomlaki, Patwin, Yuki, and Maidu.
[54]
Scalping also occurred during the
Sand Creek Massacre
on November 29, 1864, during the
American Indian Wars
, when a 700-man force of U.S. Army volunteers destroyed the village of
Cheyenne
and
Arapaho
in southeastern
Colorado Territory
, killing and mutilating
[55]
[56]
an estimated 70?163 Native American civilians.
[57]
[58]
[59]
An 1867
New York Times
article reported that "settlers in a small town in Colorado Territory had recently subscribed $5,000 to a fund ‘for the purpose of buying Indian scalps (with $25 each to be paid for scalps with the ears on)’ and that the market for Indian scalps ‘is not affected by age or sex’." The article noted this behavior was "sanctioned" by the
U.S. federal government
, and was modeled on patterns the U.S. had begun a century earlier in the "American East".
[60]
: 206
From one writer's point of view, it was a "uniquely American" innovation that the use of scalp bounties in the wars against indigenous societies "became an indiscriminate killing process that deliberately targeted Indian non-combatants (including women, children, and infants), as well as warriors."
[60]
: 204
Some American states such as Arizona paid bounty for enemy Native American scalps.
[61]
Image gallery
[
edit
]
-
Scalped corpse of buffalo hunter Ralph Morrison found after an 1868 encounter with Cheyennes, near
Fort Dodge, Kansas
-
Skull of a 20- to 30-year-old decapitated woman of the 3rd century AD. Cutting marks above the right eye hole show the head has been scalped.
-
Scalp
-
Sauvage matachez en Guerrier
(1732), by Alexandre de Batz
-
Josiah P. Wilbarger
being scalped by
Comanche
Indians, 1833
-
Lithograph depiction of scalping,
circa
1850s
-
Modocs
scalping and torturing prisoners, published in May 1873
-
The remains of dead
Crow Indians
killed and scalped by Piegan Blackfeet c. 1874
-
Survivor Robert McGee was scalped as a child in 1864 by
Sioux
—photo c. 1890.
-
1864 photo of Californian
Seth Kinman
displaying an Indian scalp (front left). He collected "Indian artifacts" including scalps.
-
Native American
Big Mouth Spring
with decorated scalp lock on right shoulder. 1910 photograph by
Edward S. Curtis
.
-
Modern roadside
historical marker
in
Boscawen, New Hampshire
, about the 1697 scalping incident involving
Hannah Duston
-
Indian Warrior with Scalp
(1789), by Barlow
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Griffin, Anastasia M. (2008).
Georg Friederici
's (1906) "Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America" with a Critical Introduction. ProQuest.
ISBN
9780549562092
p.18.
- ^
Mensforth, Robert P.; Chacon, Richard J. Chacon; Dye, David H. (2007). "Human Trophy Taking in Eastern North America During the Archaic Period: The Relationship to Warfare and Social Complexity".
The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians
. Springer Science + Business Media. p. 225.
- ^
Ahlstrom, Torbjorn (2008).
"An early example of scalping from the Mesolithic cemetery Skateholm, Sweden"
.
Archaologie und Geschichte im Ostseeraum
.
3
: 59?66.
- ^
Rying, Bent (1981).
Denmark: Introduction, Prehistory
(1 ed.). Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. p. 30.
- ^
- ^
Griffin, Anastasia M. (editor); Frederici, Georg (2008). "Critical Introduction".
Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America
. p. 180.
ISBN
9780549562092
.
- ^
Herodotus; De Selincourt, Aubrey (translator) (2003).
The Histories
. London: Penguin Books. pp.
260?261
.
ISBN
9780140449082
.
- ^
Marcellinus, Ammianus; Yonge, C.D. (1862).
Roman History, Book XXXI, II
. London: Bohn. p. 22.
- ^
Domenech, Abbe Emmanuel (1860).
Seven Years' Residence in the Great Deserts of North America, Vol. 2
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- ^
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The Judicial Punishment of Delcavatio in Visigothic Spain: A Proposed Solution based on Isidore of Seville and the Lex Visigothorum
. pp. 1?5.
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"V2*Vault Shutdown | Canvas @ Yale"
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Archived
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2017-08-18
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Duncan, John (1847).
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Duncan, John (1847).
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Stark, Miriam (2008).
Archaeology of Asia
. Wiley. p. 157.
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- ^
Murphy, Eileen; Gokhman, Ilia; Chistov, Yuri; Barkova, Ludmilla (2002). "Prehistoric Old World Scalping: New Cases from the Cemetery of Aymyrlyg, South Siberia".
American Journal of Archaeology
.
106
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doi
:
10.2307/507186
.
JSTOR
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.
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.
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Religion, Religious Ethics and Nursing
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French, Louis (2000).
Martyrdom in the Sikh Tradition: Playing the "Game of Love"
. Oxford University Press. p. 146.
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9780195649475
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.
www.heritage-history.com
. Retrieved
2022-05-04
.
- ^
Williams, Joseph (19 September 2021).
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oldwest.org
. Retrieved
3 January
2024
.
- ^
Jonathan Carver
,
Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768
(
John Coakley Lettsom
, ed.),
pp.328-329
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- ^
Burton, Richard F. (February 1864).
Anthropological Review, Vol. 2, No. 4
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- ^
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ISBN
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a
b
Axtell, James; Sturtevant, William C. (1980).
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doi
:
10.2307/1923812
.
ISSN
0043-5597
.
JSTOR
1923812
.
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a
b
c
Miller, Elizabeth (1994).
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.
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:
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.
ISSN
0032-0447
.
JSTOR
25669265
.
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van de Logt, Mark (2012).
War Party in Blue: Pawnee Scouts in the U.S. Army
.
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ISBN
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.
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ISBN
978-0-8070-0040-3
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.
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.
{{
cite news
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: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
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)
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b
c
d
e
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- ^
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b
c
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The History of the State of Maine, Vol 2
. pp. 117?118.
- ^
Drake, Samuel Gardner; Shirley, William (1870).
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.
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.
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. 2000-01-04.
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. Retrieved
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.
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. Infobase. p. 88.
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. In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.).
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. Vol. IV (1771?1800) (online ed.).
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.
- ^
Kelsey pg. 303
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"Journals of the military expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six nations of Indians in 1779; with records of centennial celebrations; prepared pursuant to chapter 361, laws of the state of New York, of 1885"
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Bibliography
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edit
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- Axtell, James.
"Scalps and Scalping"
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The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier
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External links
[
edit
]
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