Texts central to a religion's tradition
Religious texts
, including
scripture
, are
texts
which various
religions
consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They often feature a compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments and
laws
, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and admonitions for fostering a religious community.
Within each religion, these sacred texts are revered as authoritative sources of guidance, wisdom, and
divine revelation
. They are often regarded as sacred or holy, representing the core teachings and principles that their followers strive to uphold.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Etymology and nomenclature
[
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]
According to Peter Beal, the term
scripture
? derived from "
scriptura
" (Latin) ? meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, then became "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible".
[4]
Beyond Christianity, according to the
Oxford World Encyclopedia
, the term "scripture" has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion",
[5]
while
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
states it refers to a text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon".
[6]
In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the
English language
, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "
sacred
" to denote religious texts.
Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.
[7]
The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "
καν?ν
", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow.
[8]
The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group.
[9]
The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the
Synod of Laodicea
, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts.
[10]
History of religious texts
[
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]
One of the oldest known religious texts is the
Kesh Temple Hymn
of ancient
Sumer
,
[11]
[12]
a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE.
[13]
The
Epic of Gilgamesh
from
Sumer
, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE,
[14]
and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various
mythological
figures and themes of interaction with the divine.
[15]
The
Rigveda
, a scripture of
Hinduism
, is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age.
[16]
[17]
There are many possible dates given to the first writings which can be connected to Talmudic and Biblical traditions, the earliest of which is found in scribal documentation of the 8th century BCE,
[18]
followed by administrative documentation from temples of the 5th and 6th centuries BCE,
[19]
with another common date being the 2nd century BCE.
[19]
High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440,
[20]
before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.
Authority of religious texts
[
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]
The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification,
enforcement
, and its use across generations. Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as
canonical
, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.
[7]
"Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative",
[21]
[22]
revered and "holy writ",
[23]
"sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community.
[24]
[25]
The terms
sacred text
and
religious text
are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be
sacred
because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the
Abrahamic religions
that the text is
divinely
or
supernaturally
revealed
or
divinely inspired
, or in non-theistic religions such as some
Indian religions
they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternal
Dharma
. In contrast to sacred texts, many religious texts are simply narratives or discussions pertaining to the general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures of the specific religion.
In some religions (e.g.
Christianity
), the canonical texts include a particular text (
Bible
) but is "an unsettled question", according to
Eugene Nida
. In others (
Hinduism
,
Buddhism
), there "has never been a definitive canon".
[26]
[27]
While the term
scripture
is derived from the
Latin
scriptura
, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their
oral tradition
, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to
Encyclopaedia Britannica
.
[23]
[28]
[29]
In
Islam
, the
Sunnah
are the traditions and practices of the
Islamic prophet
Muhammad
that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed on to the next generations.
[30]
According to classical Islamic theories,
[31]
the sunnah are documented by
hadith
(the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals attributed to
Muhammad
), and alongside the
Quran
(the book of
Islam
) are the divine revelation (
wahy
) delivered through Muhammad
[31]
that make up the primary sources of
Islamic law
and
belief/theology
.
[32]
[33]
However sects of Islam differ on which hadiths (if any) should be accepted as canonical (see
Criticism of hadith
).
See also
[
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]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies".
Journal of Literacy Research
.
35
(1): 667?670.
, Quote: "religious texts serve two important regulatory functions: on the group level, they regulate liturgical ritual and systems of law; at the individual level, they (seek to) regulate ethical conduct and direct spiritual aspirations."
- ^
Eugene Nida (1994). "The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts".
TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Redaction
.
7
(1). Erudit:
Universite de Montreal
: 195?197.
, Quote: "The phrase "religious texts" may be understood in two quite different senses: (1) texts that discuss historical or present-day religious beliefs and practices of a believing community and (2) texts that are crucial in giving rise to a believing community."
- ^
Ricoeur, Paul (1974). "Philosophy and Religious Language".
The Journal of Religion
.
54
(1). University of Chicago Press: 71?85.
doi
:
10.1086/486374
.
S2CID
144691132
.
- ^
Peter Beal (2008).
A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology: 1450 to 2000
. Oxford University Press. p. 367.
ISBN
978-0-19-926544-2
.
- ^
"Scriptures"
.
The World Encyclopedia
. Oxford University Press. 2004.
ISBN
978-0-19-954609-1
.
- ^
John Bowker (2000).
"Scripture"
.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-280094-7
.
- ^
a
b
Lee Martin McDonald; James H. Charlesworth (5 April 2012).
'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity
. A&C Black. pp. 1?5, 18?19, 24?25, 32?34.
ISBN
978-0-567-12419-7
.
- ^
Juan Carlos Ossandon Widow (2018).
The Origins of the Canon of the Hebrew Bible
. Brill Academic. pp. 22?27.
ISBN
978-90-04-38161-2
.
- ^
Gerbern Oegema (2012). Lee Martin McDonald and James H. Charlesworth (ed.).
'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity
. A&C Black. pp. 18?23 with footnotes.
ISBN
978-0-567-12419-7
.
- ^
Gallagher, Edmon L.
; Meade, John D. (2017).
The Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity: Texts and Analysis
. Oxford University Press. pp. xii?xiii.
ISBN
978-0-19-879249-9
.
- ^
Kramer, Samuel (1942). "The Oldest Literary Catalogue: A Sumerian List of Literary Compositions Compiled about 2000 B.C.".
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
.
88
(88): 10?19.
doi
:
10.2307/1355474
.
JSTOR
1355474
.
S2CID
163898367
.
- ^
Sanders, Seth (2002). "Old Light on Moses' Shining Face".
Vetus Testamentum
.
52
(3): 400?406.
doi
:
10.1163/156853302760197520
.
- ^
Enheduanna; Meador, Betty De Shong (1 August 2009).
Princess, priestess, poet: the Sumerian temple hymns of Enheduanna
. University of Texas Press.
ISBN
9780292719323
.
- ^
Stephanie Dalley (2000).
Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others
. Oxford University Press. pp. 41?45.
ISBN
978-0-19-953836-2
.
- ^
George, Andrew (31 December 2002).
The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian
. Penguin.
ISBN
9780140449198
.
- ^
Sagarika Dutt (2006). India in a Globalized World. Manchester University Press. p. 36.
ISBN
978-1-84779-607-3
- ^
Kumar, Shailendra; Choudhury, Sanghamitra (1 January 2021). Meissner, Richard (ed.).
"Ancient Vedic Literature and Human Rights: Resonances and Dissonances"
.
Cogent Social Sciences
.
7
(1): 1858562.
doi
:
10.1080/23311886.2020.1858562
.
ISSN
2331-1886
.
- ^
"The Yahwist"
.
Contradictions in the Bible
. 23 December 2012
. Retrieved
6 December
2016
.
- ^
a
b
Jaffee, Martin S. (19 April 2001).
Torah in the Mouth: Writing and Oral Tradition in Palestinian Judaism 200 BCE-400 CE
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780198032236
.
- ^
"The History Guide"
.
www.historyguide.org
. Retrieved
6 December
2016
.
- ^
Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies".
Journal of Literacy Research
.
35
(1): 669?670.
- ^
John Goldingay (2004).
Models for Scripture
. Clements Publishing Group. pp. 183?190.
ISBN
978-1-894667-41-8
.
- ^
a
b
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009).
Scripture
. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^
Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1994).
What is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach
. Fortress Press. pp. 12?14.
ISBN
978-1-4514-2015-9
.
- ^
William A. Graham (1993).
Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion
. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44?46.
ISBN
978-0-521-44820-8
.
- ^
Eugene Nida (1994),
The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts
, vol. 7, pp. 194?195
- ^
Thomas B. Coburn (1984). "
"Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life".
Journal of the American Academy of Religion
.
52
(3). Oxford University Press: 435?459.
doi
:
10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435
.
JSTOR
1464202
.
- ^
William A. Graham (1993).
Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion
. Cambridge University Press. pp. ix, 5?9.
ISBN
978-0-521-44820-8
.
- ^
Carroll Stuhlmueller (1958). "The Influence of Oral Tradition Upon Exegesis and the Senses of Scripture".
The Catholic Biblical Quarterly
.
20
(3): 299?302.
JSTOR
43710550
.
- ^
Qazi, M. A.; El-Dabbas, Mohammed Sa?id (1979).
A Concise Dictionary of Islamic Terms
. Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publications. p. 65.
- ^
a
b
Brown,
Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought
, 1996
: p.7
- ^
Abou El Fadl, Khaled (22 March 2011).
"What is Shari'a?"
.
ABC Religion and Ethics
. Retrieved
20 June
2015
.
- ^
"What is the Difference Between Quran and Sunnah?"
.
Ask a Question to Us
. Retrieved
20 June
2015
.
Further reading
[
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]
External links
[
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]