Ethical and moral codes taught by religious traditions
Religious law
includes
ethical
and
moral codes
taught by
religious traditions
. Different religious systems hold sacred law in a greater or lesser degree of importance to their belief systems, with some being explicitly
antinomian
whereas others are
nomistic
or "legalistic" in nature. In particular, religions such as
Judaism
,
Islam
and the
Baha?i Faith
teach the need for revealed positive law for both state and society, whereas other religions such as
Christianity
generally reject the idea that this is necessary or desirable
[1]
and instead emphasise the eternal moral precepts of divine law over the civil, ceremonial or judicial aspects, which may have been annulled
[2]
as in theologies of
grace over law
.
Examples of religiously derived legal codes include
Christian
canon law
(applicable within a wider theological conception in the church, but in modern times distinct from secular state law
[3]
),
Jewish
halakha
,
Islamic
sharia
, and
Hindu law
.
[4]
Established religions and religious institutions
[
edit
]
A
state religion
(or
established church
) is a religious body officially endorsed by the
state
. A
theocracy
is a
form of government
in which a
God
or a
deity
is recognized as the supreme civil ruler.
In both theocracies and some religious jurisdictions,
conscientious objectors
may cause
religious offense
. The contrary legal systems are
secular states
or
multicultural
societies in which the government does not formally adopt a particular religion, but may either repress all religious activity or enforce tolerance of religious diversity.
Baha?i Faith
[
edit
]
Baha?i laws
are laws and ordinances used in the
Baha?i Faith
and are a fundamental part of Baha?i practice.
[5]
The laws are based on authenticated texts from
Baha'u'llah
, the founder of the Baha?i Faith, subsequent interpretations from
`Abdu'l-Baha
and
Shoghi Effendi
and legislation by the
Universal House of Justice
.
[6]
Baha?i law is presented as a set of general principles and guidelines and individuals must apply them as they best seem fit.
[6]
While some of the social laws are enforced by Baha?i institutions, the emphasis is placed on individuals following the laws based on their conscience, understanding and reasoning, and Baha?is are expected to follow the laws for the love of Baha'u'llah.
[6]
The laws are seen as the method of the maintenance of order and security in the world.
[5]
A few examples of laws and basic religious observances of the Kitab-i-Aqdas which are considered obligatory for Baha?is include:
- Recite an
obligatory prayer
each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day.
- Observe a
Nineteen Day Fast
from sunrise to sunset from March 2 through March 20. During this time Baha?is in good health between the ages of 15 and 70 abstain from eating and drinking.
- Gossip
and
backbiting
are prohibited and viewed as particularly damaging to the individual and their relationships.
Buddhism
[
edit
]
| This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
November 2018
)
|
In
Buddhism
,
Patimokkha
is a code of 227 rules and principles followed by
Buddhist monks
and
nuns
.
[7]
Christianity
[
edit
]
Within the framework of
Christianity
, there are several possible definitions for religious law. One is the
Mosaic Law
(from what Christians consider to be the
Old Testament
), also called
divine law
or
biblical law
; the most famous example is the
Ten Commandments
. Another is the instructions of
Jesus of Nazareth
to his
disciples
in the
Gospel
(often referred to as the
Law of Christ
or the
New Commandment
or the
New Covenant
, in contrast to the
Old Covenant
). Another is the
Apostolic Decree
of Acts 15, which is still observed by the
Greek Orthodox Church
.
[8]
Another is
canon law
in the
Catholic
,
Anglican
, and
Orthodox
churches.
In some
Christian denominations
, law is often contrasted with
grace
(see also
Law and Gospel
and
Antithesis of the Law
): the contrast here speaks to an attempt to gain
salvation
by
obedience to a code of laws
as opposed to seeking salvation through faith in the
atonement
made by
Jesus
on the cross. From the
Gospel of John
:
John 1:16-18
?
And of his fullness have all we received, and grace for grace. For the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ., KJV
Biblical/Mosaic law
[
edit
]
Christian views of the
Old Covenant
vary and are to be distinguished from
Christian theology
,
ethics
, and
practice
. The term "Old Covenant", also referred to as the
Mosaic covenant
and the
Law of Moses
, refers to the statements or principles of religious law and
religious ethics
codified in the first five books or
Pentateuch
of the
Old Testament
. Views of the Old Covenant are expressed in the
New Testament
, such as
Jesus
'
antitheses of the law
, the
circumcision controversy in Early Christianity
, and the
Incident at Antioch
and position of
Paul the Apostle and Judaism
. Most Christians hold that
only parts are applicable
, while some
Protestants
have the view that
none is applicable
.
Dual-covenant theologians
have the view that only
Noahide Laws
apply to
Gentiles
. The
Jewish Christianity
movement is virtually extinct. According to the New Testament Christians are no longer regarded as Gentiles (Romans 8: 28?29)
Canon law
[
edit
]
Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by or adopted by ecclesiastical authority for the governance of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the
Roman Catholic Church
, the
Eastern
and
Oriental Orthodox Churches
, and the
Anglican Communion
of churches.
[9]
The way that such church law is
legislated
, interpreted and at times
adjudicated
varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a
church council
(From
Greek
kanon
/ καν?ν,
Hebrew
kaneh / ???, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.
Canons of the Apostles
[
edit
]
The
Canons of the Apostles
[10]
or
Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles
[11]
is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the
Eastern
, fifty in the
Western
Church) concerning the government and discipline of the
Early Christian
Church, incorporated with the
Apostolic Constitutions
which are part of the
Ante-Nicene Fathers
Catholic Church
[
edit
]
The
canon law of the Catholic Church
(
Latin
:
jus canonicum
)
[12]
is the system of
laws
and legal principles made and enforced by the
hierarchical authorities
of the Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the Church.
[13]
It was the first modern Western
legal system
[14]
and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West,
[15]
predating the European
common law
and
civil law
traditions. What began with rules ("canons") adopted by the
Apostles
at the
Council of Jerusalem
in the 1st century has blossomed into a highly complex and original legal system encapsulating not just norms of the
New Testament
, but some elements of the
Hebrew
(
Old Testament
),
Roman
,
Visigothic
,
Saxon
, and
Celtic
legal traditions spanning thousands of years of human experience. while the unique traditions of
Eastern Catholic canon law
govern the 23
Eastern Catholic
particular churches
sui iuris
.
Positive ecclesiastical laws derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from
promulgation
by the supreme legislator?the
Supreme Pontiff
?who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person,
[16]
while particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition.
It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system:
[17]
laws, courts, lawyers, judges,
[17]
a fully articulated
legal code
for the
Latin Church
as well as a
code
for the
Eastern Catholic Churches
,
[18]
principles of
legal interpretation
,
[19]
and coercive penalties.
[20]
It lacks civilly binding force in most secular jurisdictions. Those who are versed and skilled in canon law, and professors of canon law, are called canonists
[21]
(or colloquially, canon lawyers).
[22]
Canon law as a sacred science is called canonistics.
The
jurisprudence of Catholic canon law
is the complex of legal principles and traditions within which canon law operates, while the
philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law
are the areas of philosophical, theological, and legal scholarship dedicated to providing a theoretical basis for canon law as a legal system and as true law.
In the
early Church
, the first canons were decreed by
bishops
united in "
Ecumenical
" councils (the Emperor summoning all of the known world's bishops to attend with at least the acknowledgement of the
Bishop
of
Rome
) or "local" councils (bishops of a region or territory). Over time, these canons were supplemented with
decretals
of the Bishops of Rome, which were responses to doubts or problems according to the maxim,
Roma locuta est, causa finita est
("Rome has spoken, case is closed").
Later, they were gathered together into
collections
, both unofficial and official. The first truly systematic collection was assembled by the
Camaldolese
monk
Gratian
in the 11th century, commonly known as the
Decretum Gratiani
("Gratian's Decree").
Pope
Gregory IX
is credited with promulgating the first official collection of canons called the
Decretalia Gregorii Noni
or
Liber Extra
(1234). This was followed by the
Liber Sextus
(1298) of
Boniface VIII
, the
Clementines
(1317) of
Clement V
, the
Extravagantes Joannis XXII
and the
Extravagantes Communes
, all of which followed the same structure as the Liber Extra. All these collections, with the
Decretum Gratiani
, are together referred to as the
Corpus Juris Canonici
. After the completion of the
Corpus Juris Canonici
, subsequent
papal
legislation was published in periodic volumes called
Bullaria
.
By the 19th century, this body of legislation included some 10,000 norms, many difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and practice. This situation impelled
Pope Pius X
to order the creation of the first
Code of Canon Law
, a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of Cardinal
Pietro Gasparri
, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under
Benedict XV
, who promulgated the Code, effective in 1918. The work having been begun by
Pius X
, it was sometimes called the "Pio-Benedictine Code" but more often the 1917 Code. In its preparation, centuries of material was examined, scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much as possible with opposing canons and even other Codes, from the
Codex of Justinian
to the
Napoleonic Code
.
Pope John XXIII
initially called for a
Synod
of the Diocese of Rome, an
Ecumenical Council
, and an updating to the 1917 Code. After the
Second Ecumenical Council
of the Vatican (Vatican II) closed in 1965, it became apparent that the Code would need to be revised in light of the documents and theology of Vatican II. After multiple drafts and many years of discussion,
Pope John Paul II
promulgated the revised
Code of Canon Law (CIC) in 1983
. Containing 1752 canons, it is the law currently binding on the Latin (Western) Roman Church.
The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the
Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches
promulgated in 1990 by
Pope John Paul II
.
The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently both modern
Civil law
and
Common law
bear the influences of canon law. Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in canon law, says that canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Sampel explains that canon law has significant influence in contemporary society.
Currently, all
Latin Catholic
seminary students are expected to take a course in canon law (c. 252.3). Some ecclesiastical officials are required to have the doctorate (
JCD
) or at least the licentiate (
JCL
) in canon law in order to fulfill their functions: Judicial Vicars (c. 1419.1), Judges (c. 1421.3), Promoters of Justice (c. 1435), Defenders of the Bond (c. 1435). In addition,
Vicars General
and Episcopal Vicars are to be doctors or at least licensed in canon law or theology (c. 478.1), and canonical advocates must either have the doctorate or be truly expert in canon law (c. 1483). Ordinarily, bishops are to have advanced degrees in sacred scripture, theology, or canon law (c. 378.1.5). St.
Raymond of Penyafort
(1175?1275), a Spanish Dominican priest, is the patron saint of canonists, due to his important contributions to the science of canon law.
Orthodox Churches
[
edit
]
The Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the
P?dalion
(Greek: Πηδ?λιον, "Rudder"), so named because it is meant to "steer" the Church. The Orthodox Christian tradition in general treats its canons more as guidelines than as laws, the
bishops adjusting them
to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the
Ecumenical Councils
(which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them
nomoi/ν?μοι
(laws) rather than
kanones/καν?νε?
(rules), but almost all Orthodox conform to them. The dogmatic decisions of the Councils, though, are to be obeyed rather than to be treated as guidelines, since they are essential for the Church's unity.
Anglican Communion
[
edit
]
In the
Church of England
, the
ecclesiastical courts
that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 11th century when the
Normans
split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other
courts
of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a
civil law
system, not
common law
, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the
Reformation
, ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by
Henry VIII
; thereafter practitioners in the
ecclesiastical courts
were trained in
civil law
, receiving a
Doctor of Civil Law
(D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an
LL.D.
from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centred at "
Doctors Commons
", a few streets south of
St Paul's Cathedral
in
London
, where they monopolized
probate
, matrimonial, and
admiralty
cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the
common law
courts in the mid-19th century. (Admiralty law was also based on civil law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.)
Charles I
repealed Canon Law in
Scotland
in 1638 after uprisings of
Covenanters
confronting the Bishops of Aberdeen following the convention at
Muchalls Castle
and other revolts across Scotland earlier that year.
Other churches in the
Anglican Communion
around the world (e.g., the
Episcopal Church in the United States
and the
Anglican Church of Canada
) still function under their own private systems of canon law.
Presbyterian and Reformed Churches
[
edit
]
In Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order", and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice and worship.
Lutheranism
[
edit
]
The
Book of Concord
is the historic
doctrinal statement
of the
Lutheran Church
, consisting of ten
credal
documents recognized as authoritative in
Lutheranism
since the 16th century.
[23]
However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are not referred to as "canons".
The United Methodist Church
[
edit
]
The
Book of Discipline
contains the laws, rules, policies and guidelines for The United Methodist Church. It is revised every four years by the General Conference, the law-making body of The United Methodist Church; the last edition was published in 2016.
[24]
Hinduism
[
edit
]
Hindu law
, a term of colonial origin, is derived from Hindu texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Dharmashastras, Puranas, Itihasas, Dharmasutras, Grihya Sutras, Arthashastra and Niti Shastras.
Islam
[
edit
]
Sharia
, also known as Islamic law (
????? ??????
q?n?n ?Isl?m?
)
, is the
moral code
and religious law of
Islam
. Sharia is derived from two primary
sources
, the
precepts
set forth in the
Quran
and the example set by the Islamic prophet
Muhammad
in the
sunnah
. Islamic jurisprudence (
fiqh
) interprets and extends the application of sharia to questions not directly addressed in the
primary sources
(the Quran and the sunnah) by including
secondary sources
. These secondary sources usually include the consensus of the sahabah (companions of the prophet) and
ulama
(religious scholars) embodied in
ijma
, as well as
analogy
from the Quran and
sunnah
through
qiyas
. In the
Maliki school of law
also,
'amal ahlil madinah
(the practices of the people of Medina) is also included.
Muslims believe the
sharia
is
Allah's law
, but they differ as to what exactly it entails.
[25]
Modernists, traditionalists and fundamentalists all hold different views of sharia, as do adherents to different schools of Islamic thought and scholarship. Different countries, societies and cultures have varying interpretations of sharia as well.
Sharia deals with many topics addressed by secular law, including
crime
,
politics
and
economics
, as well as personal matters such as
sexual intercourse
,
hygiene
,
diet
,
prayer
,
inheritance
and
fasting
. Where it has official status, sharia is applied by Islamic judges, or
qadis
. The
imam
has varying responsibilities depending on the interpretation of sharia; while the term is commonly used to refer to the leader of communal prayers, the imam may also be a scholar, religious leader, or political leader.
The reintroduction of sharia is a longstanding goal for
Islamist
movements in Muslim countries. Some Muslim minorities in Asia (
e.g.
, in
India
) have maintained institutional recognition of sharia to adjudicate their personal and community affairs. In Western countries, where Muslim immigration is more recent, Muslim minorities have introduced sharia family law for use in their own disputes with varying degrees of success, e.g., Britain's
Muslim Arbitration Tribunal
. Attempts by Muslims to impose sharia on non-Muslims in countries with large Muslim populations have been accompanied by controversy,
[26]
[27]
[28]
violence,
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
and even warfare (cf.
Second Sudanese Civil War
).
[35]
[36]
Jainism
[
edit
]
Jain law
or Jaina law refers to the modern interpretation of ancient Jain Law that consists of rules for adoption, marriage, succession and death for the followers of
Jainism
.
[37]
Judaism
[
edit
]
Halakha
(
Hebrew
:
????
; literally "walking") is the collective body of
rabbinic Jewish
religious laws derived from the
Written
and
Oral Torah
, including the
Mishnah
, the halakhic
Midrash
, the
Talmud
, and its commentaries. After the
destruction
of the
Second Temple
by the
Romans
in the year 70 during the
First Jewish-Roman War
, the Oral Law was developed through intensive and expansive interpretations of the written Torah.
The
halakhah
has developed gradually through a variety of legal and quasi-legal mechanisms, including
judicial
decisions,
legislative
enactments, and
customary law
. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, are referred to as
Responsa
. Over time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law were written based on Talmudic literature and Responsa. The most influential code, the
Shulchan Aruch
, guides the religious practice of most
Orthodox
and some
Conservative Jews
.
According to rabbinic tradition there are
613 mitzvot
in the written Torah. The
mitzvot
in the Torah (also called the
Law of Moses
) pertain to nearly every aspect of human life. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups (the
Kohanim
and
Leviyim
) members of the tribe of
Levi
, some only to farmers within the
Land of Israel
. Some laws are only applicable when there is a
Temple in Jerusalem
(see
Third Temple
).
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"In history, systems of law have almost always been based on religion: decisions regarding what was to be lawful among men were taken with reference to the divinity. Unlike other great religions, Christianity has never proposed a revealed law to the State and to society, that is to say a juridical order derived from revelation. Instead, it has pointed to nature and reason as the true sources of law" (
"Address of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI to the Reichstag"
. Retrieved
2019-12-16
.
).
- ^
"SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: The moral precepts of the old law (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 100)"
.
www.newadvent.org
. Retrieved
2020-03-19
.
- ^
Ladislas Orsy, "Towards a Theological Conception of Canon Law" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Materials in Canon Law: A Textbook for Ministerial Students, Revised Edition" (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1990), pg. 11
- ^
Gad Barzilai,
Law and Religion
, Ashgate, 2007
- ^
a
b
*
Smith, Peter (2008).
An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 158.
ISBN
978-0-521-86251-6
.
- ^
a
b
c
Smith 2008
, pp. 159
[
citation not found
]
- ^
"P??imokkha | The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volumes I & II"
.
www.dhammatalks.org
. Retrieved
2022-04-15
.
- ^
Karl Josef von Hefele
's
commentary on canon II of Gangra
notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of
Gangra
, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show.
Balsamon
also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third
Apostolic Canon
, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by
St. Augustine
in his work
Contra Faustum
, where he states that the Apostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century,
Pope Gregory the Third
(731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed
Ecumenical Synods
, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."
- ^
"Canon law"
. Catholic Encyclopedia
. Retrieved
2008-05-26
.
- ^
"Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostolic Canons"
. New Advent
. Retrieved
2008-05-26
.
- ^
"The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles"
. Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol VII
. Retrieved
2008-05-26
.
- ^
Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 771: "Jus canonicum"
- ^
Della Rocca,
Manual of Canon Law
, pg. 3
- ^
Berman, Harold J.
Law and Revolution
, pg. 86 & pg. 115
- ^
Dr. Edward N. Peters
,
CanonLaw.info Home Page
, accessed June-11-2013
- ^
Canon 331
,
1983 Code of Canon Law
- ^
a
b
Edward N. Peters
,
"A Catechist's Introduction to Canon Law"
Archived
2017-08-02 at the
Wayback Machine
, CanonLaw.info, accessed June-11-2013
- ^
Manual of Canon Law, pg. 49
- ^
"Code of Canon Law: text - IntraText CT"
.
www.intratext.com
. Retrieved
2020-03-19
.
- ^
St. Joseph Foundation newsletter, Vol. 30 No. 7
Archived
2014-07-14 at the
Wayback Machine
, pg. 3
- ^
Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 187: "Canonist"
- ^
Berman,
Law and Revolution
, pg. 288
- ^
F. Bente, ed. and trans.,
Concordia Triglotta
, (St. Louis:
Concordia Publishing House
, 1921), p. i
- ^
Book of Discipline (United Methodist)
- ^
Otto, Jan Michiel (2008). p. 7. "When people refer to
the
sharia, they are in fact referring to
their
sharia, in the name of
the
eternal will of the Almighty God."
- ^
Hamann, Katie (December 29, 2009).
"Aceh's Sharia Law Still Controversial in Indonesia"
.
Voice of America
. Retrieved September 19, 2011.
- ^
Iijima, Masako (January 13, 2010).
"Islamic Police Tighten Grip on Indonesia's Aceh"
. Reuters. Retrieved September 18, 2011.
- ^
"Aceh Sharia Police Loved and Hated"
.
The Jakarta Post
.
- ^
Staff (January 3, 2003).
"Analysis: Nigeria's Sharia Split"
.
BBC News
. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people have been killed in fighting between Christians and Muslims following the introduction of sharia punishments in northern Nigerian states over the past three years".
- ^
Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008) p. 16. "When the Governor of Kaduna announced the introduction of Sharia, although non-Muslims form almost half of the population, violence erupted, leaving more than 1,000 people dead" (p. 189). "When a violent confrontation loomed in February 200?, because the strong Christian minority in Kaduna was unwilling to accept the proposed sharia law, the sultan and his delegation of 18 emirs went to see the governor and insisted on the passage of the bill."
- ^
Mshelizza, Ibrahim (July 28, 2009).
"Fight for Sharia Leaves Dozens Dead in Nigeria – Islamic Militants Resisting Western Education Extend Their Campaign of Violence"
.
The Independent
. Retrieved September 19, 2011.
- ^
"Nigeria in Transition: Recent Religious Tensions and Violence"
Archived
2013-11-05 at the
Wayback Machine
. PBS.
- ^
Staff (December 28, 2010).
"Timeline: Tensions in Nigeria – A Look at the Country's Bouts of Inter-Religious and Ethnic Clashes and Terror Attacks"
.
Al Jazeera English
. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people are killed in northern Nigeria as non-Muslims opposed to the introduction of sharia, or Islamic law, fight Muslims who demand its implementation in the northern state of Kaduna.".
- ^
Ibrahimova, Roza (July 27, 2009).
"Dozens Killed in Violence in Northern Nigeria"
(video (requires
Adobe Flash
; 00:01:49)).
Al Jazeera English
. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "The group Boko Haram, which wants to impose sharia (Islamic law) across the country, has attacked police stations and churches."
- ^
Library of Congress Country Studies: Sudan:
. "The factors that provoked the military coup, primarily the closely intertwined issues of Islamic law and of the civil war in the south, remained unresolved in 1991. The September 1983 implementation of the sharia throughout the country had been controversial and provoked widespread resistance in the predominantly non-Muslim south. ...Opposition to the sharia, especially to the application of hudud (sing., hadd), or Islamic penalties, such as the public amputation of hands for theft, was not confined to the south and had been a principal factor leading to the popular uprising of April 1985 that overthrew the government of Jaafar an Nimeiri."
- ^
"FRONTLINE/WORLD . Sudan - The Quick and the Terrible . Facts and Stats | PBS"
.
www.pbs.org
. Retrieved
2020-03-19
.
- ^
Jain, Champat Rai
(2004),
Selections from the Jaina law
, Jaina Vidy? Sa?sth?na,
ISBN
9788188677016
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Norman Doe.
Comparative Religious Law: Judaism, Christianity, Islam
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
- Buddhism and Law: An Introduction. Edited by Rebecca Redwood French and Mark A. Nathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Pp. 407.- Volume 31. Issue 1.
- Ulanov, M.S., Badmaev, V.N., Holland, E.C. Buddhism and Kalmyk Secular Law in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries.
Inner Asia
, 2017, no.19, pp. 297?314.
External links
[
edit
]