Historical fort in Delhi, India
The
Red Fort
or
Lal Qila
(
Hindustani:
[laːl
qiːlaː]
) is a historic
fort
in the
Old Delhi
neighbourhood of
Delhi
, India, that historically served as the main residence of the
Mughal emperors
. Emperor
Shah Jahan
commissioned construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1639, when he decided to shift his capital from
Agra
to
Delhi
. Originally red and white, its design is credited to architect
Ustad Ahmad Lahori
, who also constructed the
Taj Mahal
. The fort represents a high point in the
Mughal architecture
under Shah Jahan and combines
Persian palace architecture
with Indian traditions.
The fort was plundered of its artwork and jewels during
Nader Shah
's invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1739. Most of the fort's marble structures were subsequently demolished by the British following the
Indian Rebellion of 1857
. The fort's defensive walls were largely undamaged, and the fortress was subsequently used as a
garrison
.
On 15 August 1947, the first
Prime Minister of India
,
Jawaharlal Nehru
, raised the
Indian flag
above the
Lahori Gate
. Every year on
India's Independence Day
(15 August), the prime minister hoists the Indian
tricolour flag
at the fort's main gate and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from its
ramparts
through the Public Address System of
Indian Army Corps of Signals
.
The Red Fort was designated a
UNESCO
World Heritage Site
in 2007 as part of the Red Fort Complex.
[1]
[2]
Etymology
[
edit
]
The name
Red Fort
is a translation of the
Hindustani
L?l Qila
(
Hindi
:
??? ?????
,
Urdu
:
??? ????
),
[3]
[4]
deriving from its red sandstone walls.
Lal
was derived from Hindi meaning "Red" and
Qalah
derived from Arabic word meaning "Fortress". As the residence of the imperial family, the fort was originally known as the "Blessed Fort" (
Qila-i-Mub?rak
).
[5]
[6]
Agra Fort
is also known as
L?l Qila
.
History
[
edit
]
Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1638, when he decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. Originally red and white, Shah Jahan's favourite colours,
[7]
its design is credited to architect
Ustad Ahmad Lahori
, who also constructed the
Taj Mahal
.
[8]
[9]
The fort lies along the
Yamuna River
, which fed the
moats
surrounding most of the walls.
[10]
Construction began in the sacred
Islamic month
of
Muharram
, on 13 May 1638.
[11]
: 01
Supervised by Shah Jahan, it was completed on 6 April 1648.
[12]
[13]
[14]
Unlike other Mughal forts, the Red Fort's boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain the older
Salimgarh Fort
.
[11]
: 04
The fortress-palace was a focal point of the city of Shahjahanabad, which is present-day
Old Delhi
. Shah Jahan's successor,
Aurangzeb
, added the
Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque)
to the emperor's private quarters, constructing
barbicans
in front of the two main gates to make the entrance to the palace more circuitous.
[11]
: 08
The administrative and fiscal structure of the Mughal dynasty declined after Aurangzeb, and the 18th century saw a degeneration of the palace. In 1712
Jahandar Shah
became the
Mughal Emperor
. Within a year of beginning his rule, Shah was murdered and replaced by
Farrukhsiyar
. In 1739, Persian emperor
Nadir Shah
easily defeated the strong Mughal army of around 200,000 soldiers,
[15]
plundering the Red Fort, including the
Peacock Throne
. Nadir Shah returned to Persia after three months, leaving a destroyed city and a weakened Mughal empire to Muhammad Shah.
[11]
: 09
The internal weakness of the Mughal Empire made the Mughals only titular rulers of Delhi, and a 1752 treaty made the
Marathas
protectors of the throne at Delhi.
[16]
[17]
The 1758 Maratha victory at
Sirhind
aided by the
Sikhs
and successive defeat at
Panipat
[18]
placed them in further conflict with
Ahmad Shah Durrani
.
[19]
[20]
In 1760, the
Marathas
removed and melted the silver ceiling of the
Diwan-i-Khas
to raise funds for the defence of Delhi from the armies of
Ahmed Shah Durrani
.
[21]
[22]
In 1761, after the Marathas lost the
third battle of Panipat
, Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Durrani. Ten years later, the Marathas, acting on the behest of the exiled Emperor
Shah Alam II
, recaptured Delhi from the Rohilla Afghans. Mahadji Scindia, the commander of Maratha army, restored
Shah Alam II
to the throne.
[23]
In 1764, the
Jat
ruler of
Bharatpur
, Maharaja
Jawahar Singh
(the son of Maharaja
Suraj Mal
) attacked
Delhi
and captured the Red Fort of Delhi on 5 February 1765.
[24]
Two days later, after taking tribute from the
Mughals
, removed their armies from the fort and the
Jats
took away the throne of the
Mughals
, called the pride of the
Mughals
, and the doors of the Red Fort as a memorial, and this throne is today enhancing the beauty of the palaces of
Deeg
. The doors are located in the
Lohagarh Fort
of
Bharatpur
.
[25]
In 1783 Sikh
Misls
led by
Jassa Singh Ahluwalia
,
Jassa Singh Ramgarhia
, and
Baghel Singh Dhaliwal
conquered Delhi and the Red Fort. All allied with a 40,000 force, looted the area from Awadh to Jodhpur. After negotiations, the Sikhs forces agreed to leave
Delhi
and reinstate the
Mughal emperor
Shah Alam II
. The condition of their retreat included the construction of seven
Sikh
Gurdwaras
in
Delhi
, including the
Gurudwara Sis Ganj
in
Chandni Chowk
.
[26]
In 1788, a
Maratha
garrison occupied the Red Fort and Delhi alongside providing protection to the Mughal Emperor. Mahadji Scindia signed a treaty with the Sikhs where they were warned not to enter Delhi or ask for the Rakhi tribute. The fort came under the control of the
East India Company
following the
Second Anglo-Maratha War
in 1803.
[27]
During the Second Anglo-Maratha War, forces of the East India Company defeated Maratha forces of Daulat Rao Scindia in the
Battle of Delhi
; this ended Maratha control over the city and their control of the Red Fort.
[28]
After the battle, the British East India Company took over the administration of Mughal territories and installed a
Resident
at the Red Fort.
[11]
: 11
The last Mughal emperor to occupy the fort, Bahadur Shah II, became a symbol of the
1857 rebellion
against the British East India Company in which the residents of Shahjahanabad participated.
[11]
: 15
The Rang Mahal inside Red Fort in the mid-nineteenth century.
The Rang Mahal inside Red Fort today.
Despite its position as the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities, the Red Fort was not a site of an engagement during the 1857 uprising against the British. After the rebellion was defeated, Bahadur Shah II left the fort on 17 September and was apprehended by British forces. Bahadur Shah Zafar II returned to Red Fort as a British prisoner, was tried in 1858 and exiled to
Rangoon
on 7 October of that year.
[29]
After the end of the rebellion, the British sacked the Red Fort before ordering its systemic demolition. 80% of the fort's buildings were demolished as a result of this effort, including the stone screen that connected the pavilions along the fort's river-facing facade, which was demolished.
[30]
All furniture was removed or destroyed; the
harem
apartments, servants' quarters and gardens were demolished, and a line of stone barracks built in their place.
[31]
Only the marble buildings on the east side at the imperial enclosure escaped complete destruction, although they were damaged by the demolition efforts. While the defensive walls and towers were relatively unharmed, more than two-thirds of the inner structures were demolished.
[32]
[33]
Lord Curzon
, Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, ordered repairs to the fort including reconstruction of the walls and the restoration of the gardens complete with a watering system.
[34]
Most of the jewels and artwork located in the Red Fort were looted during Nadir Shah's invasion of 1747 and again after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British. They were eventually sold to private collectors or the
British Museum
, the
British Library
and the
Victoria and Albert Museum
. For example, the jade
wine cup of Shah Jahan
and the
crown of Bahadur Shah II
are all currently located in London. Various requests for
restitution
have so far been rejected by the British government.
[35]
1911 saw the visit of King
George V
and
Queen Mary
for the
Delhi Durbar
. In preparation for their visit, some buildings were restored. The
Red Fort Archaeological Museum
was moved from the drum house to the
Mumtaz Mahal
.
The
INA trials
, also known as the Red Fort Trials, refer to the courts-martial of a number of officers of the
Indian National Army
. The first was held between November and December 1945 at the Red Fort.
On 15 August 1947, the first
prime minister of India
,
Jawaharlal Nehru
raised the
Indian national flag
above the
Lahore Gate
.
[36]
After
Indian Independence
, the site experienced few changes, and the Red Fort continued to be used as a military
cantonment
. A significant part of the fort remained under Indian Army control until 22 December 2003, when it was given to the
Archaeological Survey of India
for restoration.
[37]
[38]
In 2009 the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP), prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India under
Supreme Court
directions to revitalise the fort, was announced.
[39]
[40]
[41]
Archaeological finds
[
edit
]
Archaeological excavations at the Red Fort have unearthed several
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
artifacts dating from 2600 BCE to 1200 BCE.
[42]
Modern era
[
edit
]
The Red Fort, the largest monument in Delhi,
[43]
is one of its most popular tourist destinations
[44]
and attracts thousands of visitors every year.
[45]
It is a monument of national significance; every year on
India's Independence Day
(15 August), the prime minister of India hoists the country's flag at the Red Fort and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from its
ramparts
.
[46]
The fort also appears on the back of the
?
500 note
of the
Mahatma Gandhi New Series
of the
Indian rupee
.
[47]
The major architectural features are in mixed condition; the extensive water features are dry. Some buildings are in fairly good condition, with their decorative elements undisturbed; in others, the marble inlaid flowers have been removed by looters. The tea house, although not in its historical state, is a working restaurant. The mosque and
hammam
or public baths are closed to the public, although visitors can peer through their glass windows or marble latticework. Walkways are crumbling, and public toilets are available at the entrance and inside the park. The Lahori Gate entrance leads to a mall with jewellery and craft stores. There is also a museum of "blood paintings", depicting young 20th-century Indian martyrs and their stories, an archaeological museum and an Indian war-memorial museum.
[
citation needed
]
2000 terrorist attack
[
edit
]
The Red Fort was the site of a
terrorist attack on 22 December 2000
, carried out by six
Lashkar-e-Taiba
members. Two soldiers and a civilian were killed in what the news media described as an attempt to derail India-Pakistan peace talks.
[48]
[49]
Security
[
edit
]
To prevent terrorist attacks, security is especially strict around the Red Fort on the eve of Indian Independence Day.
Delhi Police
and paramilitary personnel keep a watch on neighbourhoods around the fort, and
National Security Guard
sharpshooters are deployed on high-rises near the fort.
[50]
[51]
The airspace around the fort is a designated
no-fly zone
during the celebration to prevent air attacks,
[52]
and
safe houses
exist in nearby areas to which the prime minister and other Indian leaders may retreat in the event of an attack.
[50]
Adoption controversy
[
edit
]
In April 2018,
Dalmia Bharat Group
adopted the Red Fort for maintenance, development, and operations, per a contract worth
?
25 crores for a period of five years, under the government's "Adopt A Heritage" scheme.
[53]
The memorandum of understanding was signed with the ministries of
Tourism
and
Culture
, and the
Archaeological Survey of India
(A.S.I.).
[54]
The adoption of the fort by a private group left people divided and drew criticism from the public, opposition political parties, and historians. It also led to the #IndiaOnSale hashtag on Twitter.
[55]
In May 2018, the Indian National Congress called for the deal to be suspended until there is an "impartial review" of the deal "by the Central Advisory Board of Archaeology or any other recognised body of experts".
[56]
2021 Indian farmers' Republic Day protest
[
edit
]
On 26 January 2021, during the
2021 Indian farmers' Republic Day protest
, a section of the farmers reached and entered the fort and hoisted religious flags from the ramparts and climbed up the domes of the fort.
[57]
One of the farmers was seen climbing a flagpole in front of the fort and hoisting the religious flag
Nishan Sahib
on the flagpole.
[58]
The clash between police and farmers also caused damage to facilities inside the fort.
[59]
The fort was vacated following police announcements.
Architecture
[
edit
]
The
World Heritage Convention
characterises the Red Fort as representing "the zenith of Mughal creativity". The fort synthesises Islamic palace structure with local traditions, resulting in a confluence of "
Persian
,
Timurid
, and
Hindu architecture
". The fort served as an inspiration for later buildings and gardens across the Indian subcontinent.
[1]
The Red Fort has an area of 254.67 acres (103.06 ha) enclosed by 2.41 kilometres (1.50 mi) of defensive walls,
[60]
punctuated by turrets and bastions that vary in height from 18 metres (59 ft) on the river side to 33 metres (108 ft) on the city side. The fort is octagonal, with the north?south axis longer than the east?west axis. The marble, floral decorations and the fort's double domes exemplify later Mughal architecture.
[61]
It showcases a high level of ornamentation, and the
Kohinoor
diamond was reportedly part of the furnishings. The fort's artwork synthesises Persian, European and Indian art, resulting in a unique Shahjahani style rich in form, expression and colour. Red Fort is one of the building complexes of India encapsulating a long period of history and its arts. Even before its 1913 commemoration as a monument of national importance, efforts were made to preserve it for posterity.
The
Lahori
and Delhi Gates were used by the public, and the Khizrabad Gate was for the emperor.
[11]
: 04
The Lahori Gate is the main entrance, leading to a domed shopping area known as the
Chatta Chowk
(covered bazaar).
Major structures
[
edit
]
The most important surviving structures are the walls and ramparts, the main gates, the audience halls and the imperial apartments on the eastern riverbank.
[62]
Lahori Gate
[
edit
]
The Lahori Gate is the main gate to the Red Fort, named for its orientation towards the city of Lahore. During Aurangzeb's reign, the beauty of the gate was altered by the addition of a
barbican
, which Shah Jahan described as "a veil drawn across the face of a beautiful woman".
[63]
[64]
[65]
Every Indian Independence Day since 1947, the national flag is unfurled and the prime minister makes a speech from its ramparts.
Delhi Gate
[
edit
]
The Delhi Gate is the southern public entrance and is similar in layout and appearance to the Lahori Gate. Two life-size stone elephants on either side of the gate face each other.
[66]
Chhatta Chowk
[
edit
]
Adjacent to the Lahori Gate is the
Chhatta Chowk
(or Meena Bazaar), where silk, jewellery and other items for the imperial household were sold during the Mughal period. This market was earlier known as
Bazaar-i-Musaqqaf
or
Chatta-bazaar
(both meaning "roofed market"). Lahori Gate, the entrance portal of the Red Fort, leads into an open outer court, where it crosses the large north?south street which originally divided the fort's military functions (to the west) from the palaces (to the east). The southern end of the street is the Delhi Gate.
[67]
Naubat Khana
[
edit
]
In the east wall of the court stands the now-isolated
Naubat Khana
(
Persian
: "Waiting Hall"), also known as
Nakkar Khana
(drum house). Music was played daily, at scheduled times and everyone, except royalty, were required to dismount. Later Mughal kings Jahandar Shah (1712?13) and Farrukhsiyar (1713?19) are said to have been murdered here. The
Indian War Memorial Museum
is located on the second floor.
[68]
The vaulted arcade of the
Chhatta Chowk
ends in the centre of the outer court, which measured 540 by 360 feet (160 m × 110 m).
[69]
The side arcades and central tank were demolished after the 1857 rebellion.
Diwan-i-Aam
[
edit
]
The inner main court to which the
Nakkar Khana
led was 540 feet (160 m) wide and 420 feet (130 m) deep, surrounded by guarded galleries.
[69]
On the far side is the
Diwan-i-Aam
, the Public Audience Hall. This was a place for the official affairs of commoners who sought after legal matters such as tax issues, hereditary complications, and
awqaf
.
The hall's columns and
engrailed
arches exhibit fine craftsmanship, and the hall was originally decorated with white
chunam
stucco.
[69]
In the back in the raised recess the emperor gave his audience in the marble balcony (
jharokha
).
The
Diwan-i-Aam
was also used for state functions.
[61]
The courtyard (
mardana
) behind it leads to the imperial apartments.
Mumtaz Mahal
[
edit
]
The two southernmost pavilions of the palace are
zenana
s
(women's quarters), consisting of the
Mumtaz Mahal
built for Arjumand Banu Begum (
Mumtaz Mahal
) wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
[70]
and the larger
Rang Mahal
a resort for royal women.
[71]
The
Mumtaz Mahal
houses the
Red Fort Archaeological Museum
.
Rang Mahal
[
edit
]
The
Rang Mahal
housed the emperor's wives and mistresses. Its name means "Palace of Colours", since it was brightly painted and decorated with a mosaic of mirrors. The central marble pool is fed by the
Nahr-i-Bihisht
("River of Paradise").
[72]
[71]
Khas Mahal
[
edit
]
The
Khas Mahal
was the emperor's apartment. It was cooled by the
Nahr-i-Bihisht
.
[72]
Connected to it is the
Muthamman Burj
, an octagonal tower where he appeared before the people waiting on the riverbank. This was done by most kings at the time.
[73]
Diwan-i-Khas
[
edit
]
The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) was a building for the official affairs and requests of the novelty and royal family. A gate on the north side of the
Diwan-i-Aam
leads to the innermost court of the palace (
Jalau Khana
) and the
Diwan-i-Khas
.
[74]
It is constructed of white marble, inlaid with precious stones. The once-silver ceiling has been restored in wood.
Francois Bernier
described seeing the jewelled Peacock Throne here during the 17th century. At either end of the hall, over the two outer arches, is an inscription by Persian poet
Amir Khusrow
:
If heaven can be on the face of the earth,
It is this, it is this, it is this.
Panoramic view of the imperial enclosure.
Hammam
[
edit
]
The
hammam
(Arabic: ?????) were the imperial baths, consisting of three domed rooms with white marble patterned floors.
[75]
It consists of three apartments separated by corridors and crowned with domes. The apartments are illuminated by a colored glass skylight.
The two rooms to either side of the present entrance are believed to have been used by the royal children for bathing. The eastern apartment, containing three fountain basins, was used primarily as a dressing room. In the center of each room stood a fountain, and one of the rooms contained a marble reservoir built into the wall. As legend goes, perfumed rose-water once ran from the taps. The western apartment was used for hot or vapor baths, and the heating arrangement was being fixed in its western wall.
[76]
Baoli(Red Fort)
[
edit
]
The
baoli
or step-well is one of the few monuments that were not demolished by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The chambers within the baoli were converted into a prison. During the
Indian National Army Trials
(
Red Fort Trials
) in 1945?46, it housed Indian National Army officers
Shah Nawaz Khan (general)
, Colonel
Prem Kumar Sahgal
, and Colonel
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
. The Red Fort Baoli is uniquely designed with two sets of staircases leading down to the well.
[77]
Moti Masjid
[
edit
]
West of the hammam is the
Moti Masjid
, the Pearl Mosque. A later addition, it was built in 1659 as a private mosque for Emperor
Aurangzeb
. It is a small, three-domed mosque carved in white marble, with a three-arched screen leading down to the courtyard.
[78]
Hira Mahal
[
edit
]
The
Hira Mahal
("Diamond Palace") is a pavilion on the southern edge of the fort, built under Bahadur Shah II and at the end of the
Hayat Baksh
garden.
[79]
The
Moti Mahal
on the northern edge, a twin building, was demolished during (or after) the 1857 rebellion. The
Shahi Burj
was the emperor's main study; its name means "Emperor's Tower",
[80]
and it originally had a
chhatri
on top. Heavily damaged, the tower is undergoing reconstruction. In front of it is a marble pavilion added by Emperor
Aurangzeb
.
[81]
Hayat Bakhsh Bagh
[
edit
]
The
Hayat Bakhsh Bagh
(
Persian
:
???? ??? ???
,
lit.
'Life-Bestowing Garden') is located in the northeast part of the complex. It features a
reservoir
, which is now dry, and channels through which the Nahr-i-Bihisht flows. At each end is a white marble pavilion, called the Sawan and Bhadon Pavilions,
Hindu months
,
Sawan
and
Bhadon
. In the centre of the reservoir is the red-sandstone
Zafar Mahal
, added in around 1842 by Bahadur Shah Zafar, and named after him.
[82]
Smaller gardens (such as the
Mehtab Bagh
or Moonlight Garden) existed west of it, but were demolished when the British barracks were built.
[11]
There are plans to restore the gardens.
[83]
Beyond these, the road to the north leads to an arched bridge and the
Salimgarh Fort
.
Princes' quarter
[
edit
]
To the north of the
Hayat Bakhsh Bagh
and the
Shahi Burj
is the quarter of the imperial princes. This was used by member of the Mughal royal family and was largely demolished by the British forces after the 1857 rebellion. One of the palaces was converted into a tea house for the soldiers.
See also
[
edit
]
- Capital forts/palaces in Delhi, oldest first
- Purana Qila
, earliest Hindu rulers
- Anangpur
, by Anangpal I of Tomara dynasty (r. 736-1152 CE)
- Qila Rai Pithora
- Lal Kot, by Tomara dynasty (1152-1177 CE) as capital
- Qila Rai Pithora, the Lal Kot expended by Prithviraj Chauhan (also called Rai Pithora, r.?1177?92 CE) of Chauhan dynasty
- Siri Fort
, by Alauddin Khalji (r.?1296?1316), second ruler of Khalji Dynasty
- Tughlaqabad Fort
, by Ghiyassudin Tughluq (r. 1320-25 CE) of Tughluq dynasty
- Feroz Shah Kotla
, by Feroz Shah Tughluq (r. 1351-88 CE) of Tughluq dynasty
- Salimgarh Fort
, in 1546 CE by Salim Shah Suri (r. 1545-54 CE), son of Sher Shah Suri
- Red fort 8n Delhi, built in 1639-48 CE by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan when he moved his capital from Agra to Delhi
- Rashtrapati Bhavan
, built in 1912?29 by colonial British raj
- History of Delhi
- Other Mughal Red Forts
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
"Red Fort Complex"
.
World Heritage List
.
UNESCO
World Heritage Centre.
Archived
from the original on 3 August 2009
. Retrieved
15 November
2009
.
- ^
"Red Fort was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007"
.
Lonely Planet
. Archived from
the original
on 29 April 2012
. Retrieved
4 August
2012
.
- ^
"qila | Meaning of qila in English by Shabdkosh English Hindi Dictionary"
.
Shabdkosh Dictionary
.
Archived
from the original on 11 November 2013
. Retrieved
2 June
2018
.
- ^
"qila | Definition of
qila
in English by Oxford Dictionaries"
.
Oxford Dictionaries | English
. Archived from
the original
on 3 April 2018
. Retrieved
3 April
2018
.
- ^
William M. Spellman (1 April 2004).
Monarchies 1000?2000
. Reaktion Books.
ISBN
978-1-86189-087-0
.
Archived
from the original on 14 December 2011
. Retrieved
5 August
2012
.
- ^
Mehrdad Kia; Elizabeth H. Oakes (1 November 2002).
Social Science Resources in the Electronic Age
. Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
978-1-57356-474-8
.
Archived
from the original on 11 January 2014
. Retrieved
5 August
2012
.
- ^
Nelson, Dean (20 May 2011). "Delhi's Red Fort was originally white".
The Daily Telegraph
(UK)
.
- ^
"Ustad Ahmad ? oi"
.
oxfordindex.oup.com
. Retrieved
8 December
2019
.
[
dead link
]
- ^
"Building the Taj ? who designed the Taj Mahal"
.
PBS
.
Archived
from the original on 18 February 2014
. Retrieved
13 August
2013
.
- ^
"Red Fort lies along the River Yamuna"
.
Archived
from the original on 14 August 2012
. Retrieved
4 August
2012
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
"Comprehensive Conservation Management Plan for Red Fort, Delhi"
(PDF)
.
Archaeological Survey of India
. March 2009.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 8 May 2012
. Retrieved
14 August
2012
.
- ^
Elliot, H. M. (Henry Miers) (26 September 1875).
"Shah Jahan"
. [Lahore : Sh. Mubarak Ali
. Retrieved
26 September
2020
– via Internet Archive.
- ^
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. 1916
. Retrieved
4 March
2020
.
- ^
Pinto, Xavier; Myall, E. G. (2009).
Glimpses of History
. Frank Brothers. p. 129.
ISBN
978-81-8409-617-0
.
Archived
from the original on 11 January 2014
. Retrieved
25 September
2016
.
- ^
"Battle of Karnal | Summary"
.
Encyclopedia Britannica
. Retrieved
24 May
2021
.
- ^
Mehta, J. L. (2005).
Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707?1813
. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 134.
ISBN
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External links
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