1920 Czech play by Karel ?apek which introduced the word "robot"
R.U.R.
|
---|
![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Rosumovi_Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_Roboti_1920.jpg/220px-Rosumovi_Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_Roboti_1920.jpg) Cover of the first edition of the play designed by
Josef ?apek
, Aventinum, Prague, 1920
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Written by
| Karel ?apek
|
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Date premiered
| 2 January 1921
|
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Original language
| Czech
|
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Genre
| Science fiction
|
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R.U.R.
is a 1920
Science fiction
play by the Czech writer
Karel ?apek
. "R.U.R." stands for
Rossumovi Univerzalni Roboti
(Rossum's Universal Robots,
[1]
a phrase that has been used as a subtitle in English versions).
[2]
The play had its world premiere on 2 January 1921 in
Hradec Kralove
;
[3]
it introduced the word "
robot
" to the English language and to
science fiction
as a whole.
[4]
R.U.R.
became influential soon after its publication.
[5]
[6]
[7]
By 1923, it had been translated into thirty languages.
[5]
[8]
R.U.R.
was successful in its time in Europe and North America.
[9]
?apek later took a different approach to the same theme in his 1936 novel
War with the Newts
, in which non-humans become a servant-class in human society.
[10]
Characters
[
edit
]
The robots breaking into the factory at the end of Act II
Parentheses indicate names which vary according to translation. On the meaning of the names, see
Ivan Klima,
Karel ?apek: Life and Work
, 2002
, p. 82.
- Humans
- Harry Domin (Domain),
General Manager
, R.U.R.
- Fabry:
Chief Engineer
, R.U.R.
- Dr. Gall: Head of the Physiological Department, R.U.R.
- Dr. Hallemeier (Hellman), Psychologist-in-Chief
- Busman (Jacob Berman),
Managing Director
, R.U.R.
- Alquist:
Clerk of works
, R.U.R.
- Helena Glory, President of the Humanity League, daughter of President Glory
- Nana (Emma), Helena's
maid
|
- Robots and robotesses
- Sulla, a robotess
- Marius, a robot
- Radius, a robot
- Damon (Daemon), a robot
- Helena, a robotess
- Primus, a robot
|
Plot
[
edit
]
Synopsis
[
edit
]
The play begins in a factory that makes artificial workers from synthetic organic matter. (As living creatures of artificial flesh and blood, that later terminology would call
androids
, the playwright's 'roboti' differ from later fictional and scientific concepts of inorganic constructs.) Robots may be mistaken for humans but have no original thoughts. Though most are content to work for humans, eventually a
rebellion
causes the extinction of the human race.
Prologue (Act I in the Selver translation)
[
edit
]
A scene from the play, showing three robots
Helena, the daughter of the president of a major industrial power, arrives at the island factory of Rossum's Universal Robots. Here, she meets Domin, the General Manager of R.U.R., who relates to her the history of the company. Rossum had come to the island in 1920 to study
marine biology
. In 1932, Rossum had invented a substance like organic matter, though with a different chemical composition. He argued with his nephew about their motivations for creating artificial life. While the elder wanted to create animals to prove or disprove the existence of God, his nephew only wanted to become rich. Young Rossum finally locked away his uncle in a lab to play with the monstrosities he had created and created thousands of robots. By the time the play takes place (circa the year 2000),
[11]
robots are cheap and available all over the world. They have become essential for industry.
After meeting the heads of R.U.R., Helena reveals that she is a representative of the League of Humanity, an organization that wishes to liberate the robots. The managers of the factory find this absurd. They see robots as appliances. Helena asks that the robots be paid, but according to R.U.R. management, the robots do not "like" anything.
Eventually Helena is convinced that the League of Humanity is a waste of money, but still argues robots have a "soul". Later, Domin confesses that he loves Helena and forces her into an engagement.
Act I (Act II in Selver)
[
edit
]
Ten years have passed. Helena and her nurse Nana discuss current events, the decline in human births in particular. Helena and Domin reminisce about the day they met and summarize the last ten years of world history, which has been shaped by the new worldwide robot-based economy. Helena meets Dr. Gall's new experiment, Radius. Dr. Gall describes his experimental robotess, also named Helena. Both are more advanced, fully-featured robots. In secret, Helena burns the formula required to create robots. The revolt of the robots reaches Rossum's island as the act ends.
Act II (Act III in Selver)
[
edit
]
Final scene of Act II
The characters sense that the very universality of the robots presents a danger. Echoing the story of the
Tower of Babel
, the characters discuss whether creating national robots who were unable to communicate beyond their languages would have been a good idea. As robot forces lay siege to the factory, Helena reveals she has burned the formula necessary to make new robots. The characters lament the end of humanity and defend their actions, despite the fact that their imminent deaths are a direct result of their choices. Busman is killed while attempting to negotiate a peace with the robots. The robots storm the factory and kill all the humans except for Alquist, the company's Clerk of the Works (Head of Construction). The robots spare him because they recognize that "He works with his hands like a robot. He builds houses. He can work."
[12]
Act III (Epilogue in Selver)
[
edit
]
Years have passed. Alquist, who still lives, attempts to recreate the formula that Helena destroyed. He is a mechanical engineer, though, with insufficient knowledge of
biochemistry
, so he has made little progress. The robot government has searched for surviving humans to help Alquist and found none alive. Officials from the robot government beg him to complete the formula, even if it means he will have to kill and dissect other robots for it. Alquist yields. He will kill and dissect robots, thus completing the circle of violence begun in Act Two. Alquist is disgusted. Robot Primus and Helena develop human feelings and fall in love. Playing a hunch, Alquist threatens to dissect Primus and then Helena; each begs him to take him- or herself and spare the other. Alquist now realizes that Primus and Helena are the new
Adam and Eve
, and gives the charge of the world to them.
?apek's conception of robots
[
edit
]
U.S. WPA
Federal Theatre Project
poster for the production by the Marionette Theatre, New York, 1939
The robots described in ?apek's play are not robots in the popularly understood sense of an automaton. They are not mechanical devices, but rather artificial
biological organisms that may be mistaken for humans. A comic scene at the beginning of the play shows Helena arguing with her future husband, Harry Domin, because she cannot believe his secretary is a robotess:
DOMIN: Sulla, let Miss Glory have a look at you.
HELENA: (stands and offers her hand) Pleased to meet you. It must be very hard for you out here, cut off from the rest of the world.
SULLA: I do not know the rest of the world Miss Glory. Please sit down.
HELENA: (sits) Where are you from?
SULLA: From here, the factory.
HELENA: Oh, you were born here.
SULLA: Yes I was made here.
HELENA: (startled) What?
DOMIN: (laughing) Sulla isn't a person, Miss Glory, she's a robot.
HELENA: Oh, please forgive me...
His robots resemble more modern conceptions of man-made life forms, such as the
Replicants
in
Blade Runner
, the "hosts" in the
Westworld
TV series
and the humanoid
Cylons
in the re-imagined
Battlestar Galactica
, but in ?apek's time there was no conception of modern
genetic engineering
(
DNA
's role in
heredity
was not confirmed until 1952). There are descriptions of kneading-troughs for robot skin, great vats for liver and brains, and a factory for producing bones. Nerve fibers, arteries, and intestines are spun on factory bobbins, while the robots themselves are assembled like automobiles.
[13]
?apek's robots are living biological beings, but they are still
assembled
, as opposed to
grown
or
born
.
One critic has described ?apek's robots as epitomizing "the traumatic transformation of modern society by the
First World War
and the
Fordist
assembly line."
[13]
Origin of the word robot
[
edit
]
Logo of Rossum's Universal Robots corporation, from the first edition title page (1920)
The play introduced the word
robot
, which displaced older words such as "
automaton
" or "
android
" in languages around the world. In an article in
Lidove noviny
, Karel ?apek named his brother
Josef
as the true inventor of the word.
[14]
[15]
In Czech,
robota
means
forced labour
of the kind that
serfs
had to perform on their masters' lands and is derived from
rab
, meaning "slave".
[16]
The name
Rossum
is an allusion to the Czech word
rozum
, meaning "reason", "wisdom", "intellect" or "common sense".
[10]
It has been suggested that the allusion might be preserved by translating "Rossum" as "Reason" but only the Majer/Porter version translates the word as "Reason".
[17]
Production history and translations
[
edit
]
Poster for a
Federal Theatre Project
production of
R.U.R.
directed by Remo Bufano in New York, 1939
The work was published in two differing versions in
Prague
by Aventinum, first in 1920, followed by a revised version in 1921.
[18]
After being postponed, it premiered at the city's
National Theatre
on 25 January 1921, although an amateur group had by then already presented a production.
[note 1]
By 1921,
Paul Selver
translated either the original 1920 edition of
R.U.R.
or a manuscript copy close to this version into English.
[note 2]
He probably translated the play freelance, and sold it to
St Martin's Theatre
in
London
. Selver's translation was adapted for the British stage by
Nigel Playfair
in 1922, but it was not produced straight away. Later that year performance rights for the U.S. and Canada were sold to the New York
Theatre Guild
, perhaps during
Lawrence Langner
's visit to Britain. Playfair's version included several changes to ?apek's original play, such as renaming the acts (the prologue became act one, and the heavily abridged final act became the epilogue), omitting around sixty lines (including most of Alquist's final speech), adding several more lines, and removing the robot character Damon (giving his lines to Radius). The omission of some lines may have been censorship from the
Lord Chamberlain's Office
, or
self-censorship
in anticipation of this, while some other changes might have been made by ?apek himself if Selver was working from a manuscript copy.
[note 3]
An edition of Playfair's adaptation was published by the
Oxford University Press
in 1923, and Selver went on to write a satiric novel
One, Two, Three
(1926) based on his experiences getting
R.U.R.
staged.
[18]
The American premiere was produced by the Theatre Guild at the
Garrick Theatre
in New York City in October 1922, where it ran for 184 performances. In the first performance, Domin was portrayed by
Basil Sydney
, Marius by
John Merton
, Hallemeier by
Moffat Johnston
, Alquist by
Louis Calvert
, Busman by
Henry Travers
, the robot Helena by antiwar activist
Mary Crane Hone
in her Broadway debut, and Primus by
John Roche
.
[20]
[21]
Spencer Tracy
and
Pat O'Brien
played robots
[
which?
]
in their
Broadway
debuts.
[22]
This production was based on Playfair's adaptation, though
Theresa Helburn
claimed that, together with two Czechs, they closely compared his version against ?apek's original text, and that all changes from the original were made by the Theatre Guild as part of the rehearsal process.
[18]
Doubleday
published this version of the play in 1923, though it omitted a change noted by
John Corbin
in the
New York Times
, of the robot Helena holding a robot baby in the final scene.
[23]
In April 1923
Basil Dean
produced
R.U.R.
in Britain for the Reandean Company at
St Martin's Theatre
, London.
[24]
This version was based on Playfair's adaptation, but omitted the characters Fabry and Hallemeier, and included several of the New York Theatre Guild revisions. The
British Library
holds a typescript copy of this version of the play, which had been submitted by St Martin's Theatre to the Lord Chamberlain's Office two weeks before the play opened.
[18]
In the 1920s, the play was performed in a number of American and British cities, including the Theatre Guild "Road" in Chicago and Los Angeles during 1923.
[25]
In June 1923, ?apek sent a letter to
Edward Marsh
, with the final lines of
R.U.R.
that had been omitted from the Selver/Playfair editions, which he described as being "suppressed in [the] English version".
[note 4]
This letter is held in
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
's
Morris Library
, along with an English translation of these lines, perhaps in Marsh's handwriting.
[23]
This translation was published in the journal
Science Fiction Studies
(2001).
[18]
A full translation of the final lines of the 1921 version of the play was published in the journal
ICarbS
(1981).
[23]
In 1989, a new, unabridged translation by Claudia Novack-Jones, based on ?apek's revised 1921 version, restored the elements of the play eliminated by Playfair.
[18]
[26]
[27]
Another unabridged translation was produced by Peter Majer and Cathy Porter for
Methuen Drama
in 1999.
[17]
An
open access
unabridged translation by David Wyllie was published by the
University of Adelaide
in 2006,
[28]
and updated in 2014.
[29]
In 2024,
MIT Press
published the book
R.U.R. and the Vision of Artificial Life
,
[30]
which offered a new translation of the original 1920 edition by ?t?pan ?imek. The book also contained a collection of essays reflecting on the play's legacy from scientists and scholars who work in
artificial life
and robotics.
Critical reception
[
edit
]
Reviewing the New York production of
R.U.R.
in 1922,
The Forum
magazine described the play as "thought-provoking" and "a highly original thriller".
[31]
John Clute
has lauded
R.U.R.
as "a play of exorbitant wit and almost demonic energy" and lists the play as one of the "classic titles" of inter-war science fiction.
[32]
Luciano Floridi
has described the play thus: "Philosophically rich and controversial,
R.U.R.
was unanimously acknowledged as a masterpiece from its first appearance, and has become a classic of technologically dystopian literature."
[33]
Jarka M. Burien called
R.U.R.
a "theatrically effective, prototypal sci-fi melodrama".
[9]
On the other hand,
Isaac Asimov
, author of the
Robot
series
of books and creator of the
Three Laws of Robotics
, stated: "?apek's play is, in my own opinion, a terribly bad one, but it is immortal for that one word. It contributed the word 'robot' not only to English, but through English, to all the languages in which science fiction is now written."
[4]
In fact, Asimov's "Laws of Robotics" are specifically and explicitly designed to prevent the kind of situation depicted in
R.U.R.
, since Asimov's Robots are created with a built-in total inhibition against harming human beings or disobeying them.
Despite getting mostly positive responses, ?apek himself was very disappointed by critics' simplistic understanding of the play. He saw the play as part comedy, and ending with faith that humanity would survive albeit in a different form, while the critics often considered it to be pessimistic or
nihilistic
, and purely either an updated
Frankenstein
, an anti-capitalist satire, or a critique of contemporary political ideologies. The critics' interpretation may have been influenced by how heavily abridged the final act (or Epilogue) was in the Selver/Playfair translation.
[23]
Adaptations
[
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]
- On 11 February 1938, a 35-minute adaptation of a section of the play was broadcast on
BBC Television
?the first piece of
television science-fiction
ever to be broadcast. Some low quality stills have survived, although no recordings of the production are known to exist.
[34]
In 1948, another television adaptation – this time of the entire play, running to 90 minutes – was broadcast by the BBC, with Radius played by
Patrick Troughton
. Although some photographs exist, no audio or visual recordings of this production survive.
[35]
- BBC Radio
has broadcast a number of productions, including a 1927
2LO
London version,
[36]
a 1933
BBC Regional Programme
version,
[37]
a 1941
BBC Home Service
version,
[38]
and a 1946
BBC Home Service
version,
[39]
.
BBC Radio 3
dramatised the play again in 1989,
[40]
and this version has been released commercially. A light-hearted 2-part musical adaptation was broadcast on April 3 and 10, 2022, on
BBC Radio 4
, with story by Robert Hudson and music by Susannah Pearse; the second episode continues the story after all humans have been killed and the robots now have emotions.
[41]
- The
Hollywood Theater of the Ear
dramatized an unabridged audio version of
R.U.R.
which is available on the collection
2000
x
: Tales of the Next Millennia
.
[42]
[43]
- In August 2010, Portuguese
multi-media
artist
Leonel Moura
's
R.U.R.: The Birth of the Robot
, inspired by the ?apek play, was performed at Itau Cultural in
Sao Paulo, Brazil
. It utilized actual robots on stage interacting with the human actors.
[44]
- An electro-rock musical,
Save the Robots
is based on
R.U.R.
, featuring the music of the New York City
pop-punk
art-rock
band Hagatha.
[45]
This version with book and adaptation by E. Ether, music by Rob Susman, and lyrics by Clark Render was an official selection of the 2014
New York Musical Theatre Festival
season.
[46]
- On 26 November 2015
The RUR-Play: Prologue
, the world's first version of
R.U.R.
with robots appearing in all the roles, was presented during the robot performance festival of Cafe Neu Romance at the gallery of the
National Library of Technology
in
Prague
.
[47]
[48]
[49]
The concept and initiative for the play came from Christian Gjørret, leader of "Vive Les Robots!"
[50]
who, on 29 January 2012, during a meeting with Steven Canvin of LEGO Group, presented the proposal to Lego, that supported the piece with the LEGO MINDSTORMS robotic kit. The robots were built and programmed by students from the R.U.R team from Gymnazium Jesenik. The play was directed by Filip Worm and the team was led by Roman Chasak, both teachers from the Gymnazium Jesenik.
[51]
[52]
In popular culture
[
edit
]
- Eric
, a robot constructed in Britain in 1928 for public appearances, bore the letters "R.U.R." across its chest.
[53]
- The 1935
Soviet
film
Loss of Sensation
, though based on the 1929 novel
Iron Riot
, has a similar concept to
R.U.R.
, and all the robots in the film prominently display the name "R.U.R."
[54]
- In the American science fiction
television series
Dollhouse
, the antagonist corporation, Rossum Corp., is named after the play.
[55]
- In the
Star Trek
episode "
Requiem for Methuselah
", the android's name is Rayna Kapec (an anagram, though not a
homophone
, of Capek, ?apek without its ha?ek).
[56]
- In the two-part
Batman: The Animated Series
episode "
Heart of Steel
", the scientist that created the HARDAC machine is named Karl Rossum. HARDAC created mechanical replicants to replace existing humans, with the ultimate goal of replacing all humans. One of the robots is seen driving a car with "RUR" as the license plate number.
[57]
- In the 1977
Doctor Who
serial "
The Robots of Death
", the robot servants turn on their human masters under the influence of an individual named Taren Capel.
[58]
- In the 1978 Norwegian TV series
Blindpassasjer
, Rossum is the name of a planet ruled by robots.
- In the 1995 science fiction series
The Outer Limits
, in the
remake
of the
"I, Robot"
episode from the original
1964 series
, the business where the robot
Adam Link
is built is named "Rossum Hall Robotics".
[59]
- The 1999
Blake's 7
radio play
The Syndeton Experiment
included a character named Dr. Rossum who turned humans into robots.
[60]
- In the "
Fear of a Bot Planet
" episode of the animated science fiction TV series
Futurama
, the Planet Express crew is ordered to make a delivery on a planet called "Chapek 9", which is inhabited solely by robots.
[61]
- In
Howard Chaykin
's
Time²
graphic novels, Rossum's Universal Robots is a powerful corporation and maker of robots.
[62]
- In
Spacehunter: Adventures in the Forbidden Zone
, when Wolff wakes Chalmers, she has been reading a copy of R.U.R. in her bed. This presages the fact that she is later revealed to be a
gynoid
.
[
citation needed
]
- In the 2016
video game
Deus Ex: Mankind Divided
,
R.U.R.
is performed in an underground theater in a dystopian
Prague
by an "augmented" (cyborg) woman who believes herself to be the robot Helena.
[63]
- In the 2018 British alternative history drama
Agatha and the Truth of Murder
, Agatha is seen reading
R.U.R.
to her daughter Rosalind as a bedtime story.
- In the 2021 movie
Mother/Android
, the play R.U.R. of
Karel ?apek
comes up. In the movie, Arthur, an AI programmer, turns out to be an android.
- A musical, based on the R.U.R. play, titled Entropics, has been written and performed in Chicago in 2024.
[64]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The world premiere was planned to be in the National Theater in Prague, but had to be postponed to 25 January 1921. The amateur theater group
Klicpera
in
Hradec Kralove
, which was supposed to mount a production after the premiere, was not informed about the date change in the National Theater, so their opening night on 2 January 1921 was the actual world premiere.
[19]
- ^
No copies of Selver's original translation are known to exist. An approximation of the original translation can be reconstructed from the Doubleday and Oxford University Press editions, as well as copies of the
Theatre Guild
prompt book
and a version submitted to the
Lord Chamberlain's Office
by St Martin's Theatre, though all these versions are based on Playfair's adaptation, and most include at least some changes by the Theatre Guild.
[18]
- ^
The possibility that Selver was working from a partially revised manuscript by ?apek is supported by textual evidence of the Doubleday and Oxford University Press editions, and also a copy of the final lines of the play in a letter from ?apek to
Edward Marsh
.
[18]
- ^
The final lines written by ?apek in this letter miss out sentences that are in both published Czech editions. Mary Anne Fox suggested that this may have been as a result of ?apek recalling the lines from memory,
[23]
while Robert M. Philmus wrote that it could have been taken from a partially revised draft that was sent to Selver, as the sentences missing are also missing from every edition of Selver's translation. One of the
Lord Chamberlain's Office
's objections to the play was that Alquist quoted the
Bible
in these final lines, which may account for their removal, as the suppression that ?apek referred to.
[18]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Roberts, Adam (2006).
The History of Science Fiction
. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p.
168
.
ISBN
978-0-333-97022-5
.
- ^
Kussi, Peter.
Toward the Radical Center: A ?apek Reader
. (33).
- ^
Kuba?ova, Petra (3 February 2021)
"Sv?tova premiera R.U.R. byla p?ed 100 lety v Hradci Kralove" ("The world premiere of RUR was 100 years ago in Hradec Kralove")
University of Hradci Kralove
- ^
a
b
Asimov, Isaac
(September 1979). "The Vocabulary of Science Fiction".
Asimov's Science Fiction
.
- ^
a
b
Voyen Koreis
.
"Capek's RUR"
. Archived from
the original
on 23 December 2013
. Retrieved
23 July
2013
.
- ^
Madigan, Tim (July?August 2012).
"RUR or RU Ain't A Person?"
.
Philosophy Now
.
Archived
from the original on 3 February 2013
. Retrieved
24 July
2013
.
- ^
Rubin, Charles T. (2011).
"Machine Morality and Human Responsibility"
.
The New Atlantis
.
Archived
from the original on 26 October 2013
. Retrieved
24 July
2013
.
- ^
"Ottoman Turkish Translation of
R.U.R.
? Library Details"
(in Turkish).
Archived
from the original on 3 February 2014
. Retrieved
24 July
2013
.
- ^
a
b
Burien, Jarka M. (2007) "?apek, Karel" in Gabrielle H. Cody, Evert Sprinchorn (eds.)
The Columbia Encyclopedia of Modern Drama
, Volume One. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 224?225.
ISBN
0231144229
- ^
a
b
Roberts, Adam
"Introduction", to
RUR & War with the Newts
. London, Gollancz, 2011,
ISBN
0575099453
(pp. vi?ix).
- ^
According to the poster for the play's opening in 1921; see Klima, Ivan (2004) "Introduction" to
R.U.R.
, Penguin Classics
- ^
?apek, Karel (2001).
R.U.R.
. translated by Paul Selver and Nigel Playfair. Dover Publications. p. 49.
- ^
a
b
Rieder, John "Karl ?apek" in Mark Bould (ed.) (2010)
Fifty Key Figures in Science Fiction
. London, Routledge.
ISBN
9780415439503
. pp. 47?51.
- ^
"Who did actually invent the word 'robot' and what does it mean?"
. Archived from
the original
on 27 July 2013
. Retrieved
25 July
2013
.
- ^
Margolius, Ivan
(Autumn 2017)
"The Robot of Prague"
Archived
11 September 2017 at the
Wayback Machine
The Friends of Czech Heritage Newsletter
no. 17, pp.3-6
- ^
"robot"
. Free Online Dictionary.
Archived
from the original on 6 July 2013
. Retrieved
25 July
2013
.
- ^
a
b
Klima, Ivan,
Karel ?apek: Life and Work
. Catbird Press, 2002
ISBN
0945774532
(p. 260).
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Philmus, Robert M. (2001).
"Matters of Translation: Karel ?apek and Paul Selver"
.
Science Fiction Studies
.
28
(1). SF-TH Inc: 7?32.
ISSN
0091-7729
.
JSTOR
4240948
.
- ^
"Databaze amaterskeho divadla, soubor Klicpera"
(in Czech)
. Retrieved
27 April
2023
.
- ^
?apek, Karel
(1923).
"The cast of the Theatre Guild Production"
.
R. U. R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)
. Translated by
Selver, Paul
. Garden City, New York:
Doubleday, Page & Company
. p. v – via
Wikisource
.
- ^
Morris County Historical Society at Acorn Hall.
"Museum's social media post containing newspaper clippings about Hone"
.
www.facebook.com
.
Archived
from the original on 11 August 2022
. Retrieved
10 August
2022
.
- ^
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