Pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort historical record
Pseudohistory
is a form of
pseudoscholarship
that attempts to distort or misrepresent the
historical record
, often by employing methods resembling those used in scholarly
historical research
. The related term
cryptohistory
is applied to pseudohistory derived from the
superstitions
intrinsic to
occultism
. Pseudohistory is related to
pseudoscience
and
pseudoarchaeology
, and usage of the terms may occasionally overlap. Although pseudohistory comes in many forms, scholars have identified many features that tend to be common in pseudohistorical works; one example is that the use of pseudohistory is almost always motivated by a contemporary
political
, religious, or personal agenda. Pseudohistory also frequently presents sensational claims or a
big lie
about historical facts which would require unwarranted
revision
of the historical record.
[3]
Another hallmark of pseudohistory is an underlying premise that scholars have a
furtive agenda
to suppress the promotor's thesis?a premise commonly corroborated by elaborate
conspiracy theories
. Works of pseudohistory often point exclusively to unreliable sources?including
myths
and
legends
, often treated as literal historical truth?to support the thesis being promoted while
ignoring valid sources that contradict it
. Sometimes a work of pseudohistory will adopt a position of historical
relativism
, insisting that there is really no such thing as historical truth and that any hypothesis is just as good as any other. Many works of pseudohistory conflate mere possibility with actuality, assuming that if something
could
have happened, then it did.
Notable examples of pseudohistory include
British Israelism
, the
Lost Cause of the Confederacy
, the
Irish slaves myth
, the
witch-cult
,
Armenian genocide denial
,
Holocaust denial
, the
clean Wehrmacht myth
, the 16th- and 17th-century
Spanish Black Legend
, and the claim that the
Katyn massacre
was not committed by the Soviet
NKVD
.
Definition and etymology
[
edit
]
The term
pseudohistory
was coined in the early nineteenth century, which makes the word older than the related terms
pseudo-scholarship
and
pseudoscience
.
[4]
In an attestation from 1815, it is used to refer to the
Contest of Homer and Hesiod
, a purportedly historical narrative describing an entirely fictional contest between the Greek poets
Homer
and
Hesiod
.
[5]
The pejorative sense of the term, labelling a flawed or disingenuous work of historiography, is found in another 1815 attestation.
[6]
Pseudohistory is akin to pseudoscience in that both forms of falsification are achieved using the methodology that purports to, but does not, adhere to the established standards of research for the given field of intellectual enquiry of which the pseudoscience claims to be a part, and which offers little or no supporting evidence for its plausibility.
[7]
: 7?18
Writers
Michael Shermer
and
Alex Grobman
define pseudohistory as "the rewriting of the past for present personal or political purposes".
[8]
: 2
Other writers take a broader definition; Douglas Allchin, a historian of science, contends that when the history of scientific discovery is presented in a simplified way, with drama exaggerated and scientists romanticized, this creates wrong stereotypes about how science works, and in fact constitutes pseudohistory, despite being based on real facts.
[9]
Characteristics
[
edit
]
Robert Todd Carroll
has developed a list of criteria to identify pseudo-historic works. He states that:
Pseudohistory is purported history which:
- Treats myths, legends, sagas and similar literature as literal truth
- Is neither critical nor skeptical in its reading of ancient historians, taking their claims at face value and ignoring empirical or logical evidence contrary to the claims of the ancients
- Is on a mission, not a quest, seeking to support some contemporary political or religious agenda rather than find out the truth about the past
- Often denies that there is such a thing as historical truth, clinging to the extreme skeptical notion that only what is absolutely certain can be called 'true' and nothing is absolutely certain, so nothing is true
- Often maintains that history is nothing but mythmaking and that different histories are not to be compared on such traditional academic standards as accuracy, empirical probability, logical consistency, relevancy, completeness, fairness or honesty, but on moral or political grounds
- Is selective in its use of ancient documents, citing favorably those that fit with its agenda, and ignoring or interpreting away those documents which do not fit
- Considers the possibility of something being true as sufficient to believe it is true if it fits with one's agenda
- Often maintains that there is a conspiracy to suppress its claims because of racism, atheism or ethnocentrism, or because of opposition to its political or religious agenda
[10]
Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke
prefers the term "cryptohistory". He identifies two necessary elements as "a complete ignorance of the primary sources" and the repetition of "inaccuracies and wild claims".
[11]
[12]
Other common characteristics of pseudohistory are:
- The arbitrary linking of disparate events so as to form ? in the theorist's opinion ? a pattern. This is typically then developed into a
conspiracy theory
postulating a hidden agent responsible for creating and maintaining the pattern. For example, the pseudohistorical
The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail
links the
Knights Templar
, the medieval
Grail Romances
, the
Merovingian
Frankish dynasty and the artist
Nicolas Poussin
in an attempt to identify lineal descendants of Jesus.
- Hypothesising the consequences of unlikely events that "could" have happened, thereby assuming tacitly that they did.
- Sensationalism
, or
shock value
- Cherry picking
, or "law office history", evidence that helps the historical argument being made and suppressing evidence that hurts it.
[13]
Categories and examples
[
edit
]
The following are some common categories of pseudohistorical theory, with examples. Not all theories in a listed category are necessarily pseudohistorical; they are rather categories that seem to attract pseudohistorians.
Main categories
[
edit
]
Alternative chronologies
[
edit
]
An alternative
chronology
is a revised sequence of events that deviates from the standard timeline of world history accepted by mainstream scholars. An example of an "alternative chronology" is
Anatoly Fomenko
's
New Chronology
, which claims that recorded history actually began around AD 800 and all events that allegedly occurred prior to that point either never really happened at all or are simply inaccurate retellings of events that happened later.
[14]
One of its outgrowths is the
Tartary
conspiracy theory. Other, less extreme examples, are the
phantom time hypothesis
, which asserts that the years AD 614?911 never took place; and the
New Chronology
of
David Rohl
, which claims that the accepted timelines for ancient Egyptian and Israelite history are wrong.
[15]
Historical falsification
[
edit
]
In the eighth century, a forged document known as
Donation of Constantine
, which supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the
Pope
, became widely circulated.
[16]
In the twelfth century,
Geoffrey of Monmouth
published the
History of the Kings of Britain
, a pseudohistorical work purporting to describe the ancient history and origins of the British people. The book synthesises earlier Celtic mythical traditions to inflate the deeds of the mythical
King Arthur
. The contemporary historian
William of Newburgh
wrote around 1190 that "it is quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors, or indeed about his predecessors from
Vortigern
onwards, was made up, partly by himself and partly by others".
[17]
Historical revisionism
[
edit
]
The
Shakespeare authorship question
is a
fringe theory
that claims that the works attributed to
William Shakespeare
were actually written by someone other than William Shakespeare of
Stratford-upon-Avon
.
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
Another example of historical revisionism is the thesis, found in the writings of
David Barton
and others, asserting that the United States was founded as an exclusively
Christian
nation.
[22]
[23]
[24]
Mainstream historians instead support the traditional position, which holds that the American founding fathers
intended for church and state to be kept separate
.
[25]
[26]
Confederate revisionists (a.k.a. Civil War revisionists), "
Lost Cause
" advocates, and
Neo-Confederates
argue that the
Confederate States of America
's prime motivation was the maintenance of
states' rights
and limited government, rather than the preservation and expansion of
slavery
.
[27]
[28]
[29]
Connected to the Lost Cause is the
Irish slaves myth
, a pseudo-historical narrative which conflates the experiences of
Irish indentured servants
and
enslaved Africans
in the
Americas
. This myth, which was historically promoted by
Irish nationalists
such as
John Mitchel
, has in the modern-day been promoted by
white supremacists
in the United States to minimize the mistreatment experienced by
African Americans
(such as
racism
and
segregation
) and oppose demands for
slavery reparations
. The myth has also been used to obscure and downplay Irish involvement in the
transatlantic slave trade
.
[30]
[31]
Historical negationism
[
edit
]
While closely related to previous categories,
historical negationism
or denialism specifically aims to outright deny the existence of confirmed events, often including various massacres, genocides, and
national histories
.
Some examples include Holocaust denial, denial of the Armenian Genocide,
[32]
as well as the 1984 work
From Time Immemorial
by
Joan Peters
.
[33]
Psychohistory
[
edit
]
Mainstream historians have categorized psychohistory as pseudohistory.
[34]
[35]
Psychohistory is an amalgam of psychology, history, and related social sciences and the humanities.
[36]
Its stated goal is to examine the "why" of history, especially the difference between stated intention and actual behavior. It also states as its goal the combination of the insights of psychology, especially
psychoanalysis
, with the research methodology of the
social sciences
and humanities to understand the emotional origin of the behavior of individuals, groups and nations, past and present.
Pseudoarchaeology
[
edit
]
Pseudoarchaeology
refers to a false interpretation of records, namely physical ones, often by unqualified or otherwise amateur archeologists. These interpretations are often baseless and seldom align with established consensus. Nazi archaeology is a prominent example of this technique.
[37]
Frequently, people who engage in pseudoarchaeology have a very strict interpretation of evidence and are unwilling to alter their stance, resulting in interpretations that often appear overly simplistic and fail to capture the complexity and nuance of the complete narrative.
[38]
Various examples of pseudohistory
[
edit
]
(These following examples can belong to a variety of the above mentioned categories, or ones not mentioned as well).
Ancient aliens, ancient technologies, and lost lands
[
edit
]
Immanuel Velikovsky
's books
Worlds in Collision
(1950),
Ages in Chaos
(1952), and
Earth in Upheaval
(1955), which became "instant bestsellers",
[7]
demonstrated that pseudohistory based on ancient mythology held potential for tremendous financial success
[7]
and became models of success for future works in the genre.
[7]
In 1968,
Erich von Daniken
published
Chariots of the Gods?
, which claims that ancient visitors from outer space constructed the pyramids and other monuments. He has since published other books in which he makes similar claims. These claims have all been categorized as pseudohistory.
[7]
: 201
Similarly,
Zechariah Sitchin
has published numerous books claiming that a race of extraterrestrial beings from the
Planet Nibiru
known as the
Anunnaki
visited Earth in ancient times in search of gold, and that they genetically engineered humans to serve as their slaves. He claims that memories of these occurrences are recorded in
Sumerian mythology
, as well as other mythologies all across the globe. These speculations have likewise been categorized as pseudohistory.
[39]
[40]
The ancient astronaut hypothesis was further popularized in the United States by the
History Channel
television series
Ancient Aliens
.
[41]
History professor
Ronald H. Fritze
observed that the pseudohistorical claims promoted by von Daniken and the
Ancient Aliens
program have a periodic popularity in the US:
[7]
[42]
"In a pop culture with a short memory and a voracious appetite, aliens and pyramids and lost civilizations are recycled like fashions."
[7]
: 201
[42]
The author
Graham Hancock
has sold over four million copies of books promoting the pseudohistorical thesis that all the major monuments of the ancient world, including
Stonehenge
, the
Egyptian pyramids
, and the
moai
of
Easter Island
, were built by a single ancient supercivilization,
[43]
which Hancock claims thrived from 15,000 to 10,000 BC and possessed technological and scientific knowledge equal to or surpassing that of modern civilization.
[7]
He first advanced the full form of this argument in his 1995 bestseller
Fingerprints of the Gods
,
[7]
which won popular acclaim, but scholarly disdain.
[7]
Christopher Knight
has published numerous books, including
Uriel's Machine
(2000), expounding pseudohistorical assertions that ancient civilizations possessed technology far more advanced than the technology of today.
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
The claim that a lost continent known as
Lemuria
once existed in the Pacific Ocean has likewise been categorized as pseudohistory.
[7]
: 11
Furthermore, similar conspiracy theories promote the idea of embellished, fabricated accounts of historical civilizations, namely
Khazaria
and
Tartaria
.
Antisemitic pseudohistory
[
edit
]
The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion
is a fraudulent work purporting to show a historical conspiracy for world domination by Jews.
[48]
The work was conclusively proven to be a forgery in August 1921, when
The Times
revealed that extensive portions of the document were directly plagiarized from
Maurice Joly
's 1864 satirical dialogue
The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu
,
[49]
as well as
Hermann Goedsche
's 1868 anti-Semitic novel
Biarritz
.
[50]
The
Khazar theory
is an academic
fringe theory
that postulates the belief that the bulk of
European Jewry
is of
Central Asian
(
Turkic
) origin. In spite of the
mainstream academic consensus
which conclusively rejects it, this theory has been promoted in
Anti-Semitic
and some
Anti-Zionist
circles, they argue that Jews are an alien element in both Europe and
Palestine
.
Holocaust denial
in particular and
genocide denial
in general are widely categorized as pseudohistory.
[8]
: 237
[51]
Major proponents of Holocaust denial include
David Irving
and others, who argue that the
Holocaust
, the
Holodomor
, the
Armenian genocide
, the
Assyrian genocide
, the
Greek genocide
and
other genocides
did not occur, or accounts of them were greatly exaggerated.
[51]
Ethnocentric revisionism
[
edit
]
Most
Afrocentric
(i.e.
Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories
, see
Ancient Egyptian race controversy
) ideas have been identified as pseudohistorical,
[52]
[53]
alongside the "
Indigenous Aryans
" theories published by
Hindu nationalists
during the 1990s and 2000s.
[54]
The "crypto-history" developed within
Germanic mysticism
and
Nazi occultism
has likewise been placed under this categorization.
[55]
[56]
Among leading Nazis,
Heinrich Himmler
is believed to have been influenced by occultism and according to one theory, developed the SS base at
Wewelsburg
in accordance with an esoteric plan.
The
Sun Language Theory
is a pseudohistorical ideology which argues that all languages are descended from a form of proto-Turkish.
[57]
The theory may have been partially devised in order to legitimize Arabic and Semitic loanwords occurring in the Turkish language by instead asserting that the Arabic and Semitic words were derived from the Turkish ones rather than vice versa.
[58]
A large number of nationalist pseudohistorical theories deal with the legendary
Ten Lost Tribes
of ancient Israel.
British-Israelism
, also known as Anglo-Israelism, the most famous example of this type, has been conclusively refuted by mainstream historians using evidence from a vast array of different fields of study.
[59]
[60]
[61]
Another form of ethnocentric revisionism is nationalistic pseudohistory. The "
Ancient Macedonians continuity theory
" is one such pseudohistorical theory, which postulates demographic, cultural and linguistic continuity between Macedonians of antiquity and the main ethnic group in present-day
North Macedonia
.
[62]
[63]
Also, the Bulgarian medieval dynasty of
the Komitopules
, which ruled the
First Bulgarian Empire
in its last decades, is presented as "Macedonian", ruling a "medieval Macedonian state", because of the location of its capitals in Macedonia.
[64]
Dacianism
is a Romanian pseudohistorical current that attempts to attribute far more influence over European and world history to the
Dacians
than that which they actually enjoyed.
[65]
Dacianist historiography claims that the Dacians held primacy over all other civilizations, including the
Romans
;
[66]
that the
Dacian language
was the origin of
Latin
and all other languages, such as
Hindi
and
Babylonian
;
[67]
and sometimes that the
Zalmoxis
cult has structural links to Christianity.
[68]
Dacianism was most prevalent in
National Communist
Romania
, as the
Ceau?escu
regime portrayed the Dacians as insurgents defying an "imperialist" Rome; the
Communist Party
had formally attached "protochronism", as Dacianism was known, to
Marxist
ideology by 1974.
[69]
Matriarchy
[
edit
]
The consensus among academics is that no strictly matriarchal society is known to have existed.
[70]
[71]
Anthropologist
Donald Brown
's list of
human cultural universals
(
viz.
, features shared by nearly all current human societies) includes men being the "dominant element" in public political affairs,
[72]
which is the contemporary opinion of mainstream
anthropology
.
[73]
Some societies are
matrilineal
or
matrifocal
but in fact have
patriarchal
power structures, which may be misidentified as matriarchal.
The idea that matriarchal societies existed and they preceded patriarchal societies was first raised in the 19th-century among Western academics, but it has since been discredited.
[73]
Despite this however, some
second-wave feminists
assert that a matriarchy preceded the patriarchy. The
Goddess Movement
and Riane Eisler's
The Chalice and the Blade
cite
Venus figurines
as evidence that societies of
paleolithic
and
neolithic
Europe were matriarchies that worshipped a goddess. This belief is not supported by mainstream academics.
[74]
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
[
edit
]
Excluding the
Norse colonization of the Americas
and other reputable scholarship, most theories of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact have been classified as pseudohistory, including claims that the Americas were actually discovered by Arabs or Muslims.
[75]
Gavin Menzies
' book
1421: The Year China Discovered the World
, which argues for the idea that Chinese sailors discovered America, has also been categorized as a work of pseudohistory.
[7]
: 11
Racist pseudohistory
[
edit
]
Josiah Priest
and other nineteenth-century American writers wrote pseudohistorical narratives that portrayed
African Americans
and
Native Americans
in an extremely negative light.
[76]
Priest's first book was
The Wonders of Nature and Providence, Displayed
(1826).
[77]
[76]
The book is regarded by modern critics as one of the earliest works of modern American pseudohistory.
[76]
Priest attacked Native Americans in
American Antiquities and Discoveries of the West
(1833)
[78]
[76]
and African-Americans in
Slavery, As It Relates to the Negro
(1843).
[79]
[76]
Other nineteenth-century writers, such as
Thomas Gold Appleton
, in his
A Sheaf of Papers
(1875), and
George Perkins Marsh
, in his
The Goths in New England
, seized upon false notions of
Viking
history to promote the superiority of
white people
(as well as to oppose the
Catholic Church
). Such misuse of Viking history and imagery reemerged in the twentieth century among some groups promoting
white supremacy
.
[80]
Communist pseudohistory
[
edit
]
Supporters of communist pseudohistory claim, among other things, that
Joseph Stalin
and other top Soviet leaders did not realize the scope of the killings, that the executions of prisoners were legally justifiable, and that prisoners in concentration camps performed important construction work that helped the Soviet Union economonically, particularly during
World War II
. Scholars point to overwhelming evidence that Stalin directly helped plan the mass killings, that many prisoners were sent to concentration camps extrajudicially, and that prisoners were often simply isolated in remote camps or given pointless and menial tasks.
[81]
In
Bulgaria
, communists claim that the country had "greater
freedom of speech
" under communism than today, regardless of the absence of
legitimate non-state media
, the
jamming of radio broadcasts by enemy countries
, the designation of the
People's Republic of Bulgaria
as a
"completely unfree country"
by
Freedom House
and the fact that
Reporters Without Borders
began publishing the first
Freedom of Speech
rankings in the world nearly 13 years after the fall of the communist regime - in October 2002.
[82]
Political pseudohistory
[
edit
]
A recent but unfounded claim by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asserts that the Mufti of Jerusalem gave the Nazis the idea for the Holocaust. This claim has come under strong criticism from historians across the world.
[83]
[84]
Anti-religious pseudohistory
[
edit
]
The
Christ myth theory
claims that
Jesus
of Nazareth never existed as a historical figure and that his existence was invented by early Christians. This argument currently finds very little support among scholars and historians of all faiths and has been described as pseudohistorical.
[85]
[86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
[92]
[93]
[94]
Likewise, some minority historian views assert that Muhammad either did not exist or was
not central to founding Islam
.
[95]
Religious pseudohistory
[
edit
]
The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail
(1982) by
Michael Baigent
,
Richard Leigh
, and
Henry Lincoln
is a book that purports to show that certain historical figures, such as
Godfrey of Bouillon
, and contemporary aristocrats are the lineal descendants of
Jesus
. Mainstream historians have widely panned the book, categorizing it as pseudohistory,
[96]
[97]
[98]
[99]
[100]
[101]
[102]
[103]
and pointing out that the genealogical tables used in it are now known to be spurious.
[104]
Nonetheless, the book was an international best-seller
[103]
and inspired
Dan Brown
's bestselling mystery
thriller novel
The Da Vinci Code
.
[103]
[7]
: 2?3
Although historians and archaeologists consider the
Book of Mormon
to be an anachronistic invention of Joseph Smith, many members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church)
believe that it describes ancient historical events in the Americas.
Searches for Noah's Ark
have also been categorized as pseudohistory.
[105]
[106]
[107]
[108]
[109]
In her books, starting with
The Witch-Cult in Western Europe
(1921), English author
Margaret Murray
claimed that the
witch trials in the early modern period
were actually an attempt by chauvinistic Christians to annihilate a
secret, pagan religion
,
[110]
which she claimed worshipped a
Horned God
.
[110]
Murray's claims have now been widely rejected by respected historians.
[111]
[112]
[110]
Nonetheless, her ideas have become the
foundation myth
for modern
Wicca
, a contemporary
Neopagan
religion.
[112]
[113]
Belief in Murray's alleged witch-cult is still prevalent among Wiccans,
[113]
but is gradually declining.
[113]
Hinduism
[
edit
]
The belief that Ancient
India
was technologically advanced to the extent of being a nuclear power is gaining popularity in India.
[114]
Emerging extreme nationalist trends and ideologies based on
Hinduism
in the political arena promote these discussions.
Vasudev Devnani
, the education minister for the western state of
Rajasthan
, said in January 2017 that it was important to "understand the scientific significance" of the
cow
, as it was the only animal in the world to both inhale and exhale oxygen.
[115]
In 2014, Prime Minister
Narendra Modi
told a gathering of doctors and medical staff at a
Mumbai
hospital that the story of the Hindu god
Ganesha
showed
genetic science
existed in ancient India.
[116]
Many new age pseudohistorians who focus on converting mythological stories into history are well received among the crowd.
Indian Science Congress ancient aircraft controversy
is a related event when Capt. Anand J. Bodas, retired principal of a pilot training facility, claimed that aircraft more advanced than today's versions existed in ancient India at the
Indian Science Congress
.
[117]
As a topic of study
[
edit
]
Courses critiquing pseudohistory are offered as undergraduate courses in liberal arts settings, one example being in
Claremont McKenna College
.
[118]
In the past, Korea's elite, which included many aristocrats who were better educated than the common people, similarly treated historical studies created by the masses of low-class people as '民衆史學'.
[119]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Herf, Jeffrey
(2006).
The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during the World War II and the Holocaust
. Harvard University Press. p. 127.
ISBN
978-0-674038-59-2
.
- ^
- Marchand, Laure; Perrier, Guillaume (2015).
Turkey and the Armenian Ghost: On the Trail of the Genocide
.
McGill-Queen's Press
. pp. 111?112.
ISBN
978-0-7735-9720-4
.
The I?dır genocide monument is the ultimate caricature of the Turkish government's policy of denying the 1915 genocide by rewriting history and transforming victims into guilty parties.
- Hovannisian 2001
, p. 803.
"... the unbending attitude of the Ankara government, in 1995 of a multi-volume work of the prime ministry's state archives titled
Armenian Atrocities in the Caucasus and Anatolia According to Archival Documents
. The purpose of the publication is not only to reiterate all previous denials but also to demonstrate that it was in fact the Turkish people who were the victims of a genocide perpetrated by the Armenians."
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHovannisian2001 (
help
)
- Cheterian 2015
, pp. 65?66. "Some of the proponents of this official narrative have even gone so far as to claim that the Armenians were the real aggressors, and that Muslim losses were greater than those of the Armenians."
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCheterian2015 (
help
)
- Gurpınar 2016
, p. 234. "Maintaining that 'the best defence is a good offence', the new strategy involved accusing Armenians in response for perpetrating genocide against the Turks. The violence committed by the Armenian committees under the Russian occupation of Eastern Anatolia and massacring of tens of thousands of Muslims (Turks and Kurds) in revenge killings in 1916?17 was extravagantly displayed, magnified and decontextualized."
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGurpınar2016 (
help
)
- ^
"Joseph Goebbels On the "Big Lie"
"
.
www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
. Retrieved
2024-03-27
.
- ^
Monthly magazine and British register, Volume 55 (February 1823),
p. 449
, in reference to John Galt,
Ringan Gilhaize: Or, The Covenanters
, Oliver & Boyd, 1823.
[1]
- ^
C. A. Elton,
Remains of Hesiod the Ascraean
1815,
p. xix
.
- ^
The Critical review: or, Annals of literature
, Volume 1 ed. Tobias George Smollett, 1815,
p. 152
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
Fritze, Ronald H. (2009).
Invented Knowledge: False History, Fake Science and Pseudo-Religions
. London: Reaktion Books.
ISBN
978-1-86189-430-4
.
- ^
a
b
Shermer, Michael; Grobman, Alex (2009).
Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It?
. Oakland: University of California Press.
ISBN
978-0-520-26098-6
.
- ^
Allchin, D. (2004).
"Pseudohistory and pseudoscience"
(PDF)
.
Science & Education
.
1
(13): 179?195.
Bibcode
:
2004Sc&Ed..13..179A
.
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External links
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edit
]