Fee-paying school in the United Kingdom
Private schools in the United Kingdom
(also called "independent" schools)
[1]
are schools that require fees for admission and enrollment. Some have
financial endowments
, most are governed by a board of governors, and are owned by a mixture of corporations, trusts and private individuals. They are independent of many of the regulations and conditions that apply to
state-funded schools
. For example, the schools do not have to follow the
National Curriculum
, although many such schools do.
[1]
Historically the term "private school" referred to a school in private ownership, in contrast to an
endowed
school subject to a trust or of charitable status. Many of the older independent schools catering for the 13?18 age range in England and Wales are known as
public schools
, seven of which were the subject of the
Public Schools Act 1868
. The term "public school" meant they were then open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion (while in the United States and most other English-speaking countries "public school" refers to a publicly funded
state school
).
Prep (preparatory) schools
(also known as "private schools") educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other secondary schools.
Some former
grammar schools
converted to a private fee-charging model following the 1965
Circular 10/65
and the subsequent cessation in 1975 of government funding support for
direct grant grammar schools
.
There are around 2,600 independent schools in the UK,
[2]
which educate around 615,000 children, some 7 per cent of all British school-age children and 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16.
[3]
[4]
In addition to charging tuition fees, they may also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and
charitable status
. Some of these schools (1,300) are members of the
Independent Schools Council
.
[5]
In 2021, the average annual cost for private schooling was £15,191 for
day schools
and £36,000 for
boarding schools
.
[6]
The Independent Schools Yearbook
has been published annually since 1986.
[7]
This was a name change of a publication that started in 1889 as
The Public Schools Yearbook
.
[8]
Origins
[
edit
]
Some independent schools are particularly old, such as
The King's School, Canterbury
(founded 597),
The King's School, Rochester
(founded 604),
St Peter's School, York
(founded c. 627),
Sherborne School
(founded 705),
Wells Cathedral School
(founded 909),
Warwick School
(c. 914),
King's Ely
(c. 970) and
St Albans School
(948). These schools were founded by the church and were under its complete dominion. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries the first schools independent of the church were founded.
Winchester
(1382) and
Oswestry
(1407) were the first of their kind (although they had a strong Christian religious ethos) and such early "free grammar schools" founded by wealthy benefactors paved the way for the establishment of the modern "
public school
". These were typically established for male students from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds. English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself, irrespective of poverty.
The transformation of free charitable foundations into institutions which sometimes charge fees came about readily: the foundation would only afford minimal facilities, so that further fees might be charged to lodge, clothe and otherwise maintain the scholars, to the private profit of the trustees or headmaster. Also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few students could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. Some schools still keep their foundation students in a separate house from other pupils, or distinguish them in other ways.
After a time, such fees eclipsed the original charitable income, and the original
endowment
would become a minor part of the school's finances. By 2022 senior boarding schools were charging fees of over £40,000 per annum.
[9]
Most of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, and bursaries are available to students on a means test basis.
Christ's Hospital
in
Horsham
is an example: a large proportion of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors.
Victorian expansion
[
edit
]
The educational reforms of the 19th century were particularly important. Reformers included
Thomas Arnold
at
Rugby
, and then
Samuel Butler
and later
Benjamin Kennedy
at
Shrewsbury
; the first of these emphasised team spirit and "
muscular Christianity
" and the latter
[
clarification needed
]
the importance of scholarship and competitive examinations.
Edward Thring
of
Uppingham School
introduced major reforms, focusing on the importance of the individual and of competition, as well as the need for a "total curriculum" with academia, music, sport and drama being central to education. Most
public schools
developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, and came to play an important role in the development of the
Victorian
social elite. Under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes.
They were schools for the gentlemanly elite of Victorian politics, armed forces and colonial government. Often, successful businessmen would send their sons to a public school as a mark of participation in the elite.
[
clarification needed
]
Much of the discipline was in the hands of senior pupils (usually known as
prefects
); this was not just a way to reduce staffing costs, but was also seen as vital preparation for the senior pupils' later roles in public or military service. More recently heads of public schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in maintaining discipline.
To an extent, the public school system influenced the school systems of the
British Empire
, and recognisably "
public
" schools can be found in many
Commonwealth
countries.
20th and 21st centuries
[
edit
]
Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the
direct grant grammar schools
. The Direct Grant Grammar Schools (Cessation of Grant) Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result, 119 of these schools became independent.
[10]
Pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the
mid-1970s recession
. At the same time participation at all secondary schools grew dramatically, so that the share of the independent sector fell from a little under 8 per cent in 1964 to reach a low of 5.7 per cent in 1978. Both these trends were reversed during the 1980s, and the share of the independent schools reached 7.5 per cent by 1991. The changes since 1990 have been less dramatic: the share fell to 6.9 per cent by 1996 before increasing very slightly after 2000 to reach 7.2 per cent in 2012.
[11]
By 2015, the figure fell back to 6.9 per cent, with the absolute number of pupils attending independent schools falling everywhere in England apart from in the
South East
.
[12]
England and Wales
[
edit
]
In 2011 there were more than 2,500 private schools in the UK educating some 628,000 children, comprising over 6.5 per cent of UK children, and more than 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16.
[13]
[14]
In England the schools account for a slightly higher percentage than in the UK as a whole. According to a 2010 study by Ryan & Sibetia,
[15]
"the proportion of pupils attending independent schools in England is currently 7.2 per cent (considering full-time pupils only)".
Most of the larger private schools are either full or partial
boarding schools
, although many have now become predominantly
day schools
. By contrast there are only a few dozen
state boarding schools
. Boarding-school traditions give a distinctive character to British private education, even in the case of day-pupils.
A high proportion of private schools, particularly the larger and older institutions, have
charitable
status.
[16]
- Inspections in England
The
Independent Schools Council
(ISC), through seven affiliated organisations, represents 1,300 schools that together educate over 80 per cent of the pupils in the UK
private sector
. Those schools in England which are members of the affiliated organisations of the ISC are inspected by the Independent Schools Inspectorate under a framework approved by the Government's Department for Education (DfE). Private schools not affiliated to the ISC in England are inspected by
Ofsted
. Private schools accredited to the ISC in Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland or others in England out with the inspectorial bodies listed above are inspected through the national inspectorates in each country.
[17]
Scotland
[
edit
]
Private schools in
Scotland
educate about 31,000 children and often referred to as private schools. Although many of the Scottish private schools are members of the ISC they are also represented by the
Scottish Council of Independent Schools
, recognised by the
Scottish Parliament
as the body representing private schools in Scotland. Unlike England, all Scottish private schools are subject to the same regime of inspections by
Education Scotland
as local authority schools and they have to register with the
Learning Directorate
.
[18]
[19]
The nine largest Scottish private schools, with 1,000 or more pupils, are
George Watson's College
,
Hutcheson's Grammar School
,
Robert Gordon's College
,
George Heriot's School
,
St Aloysius' College
,
The Glasgow Academy
,
Dollar Academy
, the
High School of Glasgow
and the
High School of Dundee
.
In Scotland, it was common for children destined for private schools to receive their primary education at a local school. This arose because of Scotland's long tradition of state-funded education, which was spearheaded by the
Church of Scotland
from the seventeenth century, long before such education was common in England. Private
prep schools
only became more widespread in Scotland from the late 19th century (usually attached to an existing secondary private school, though exceptions such as
Craigclowan Preparatory School
and
Cargilfield Preparatory School
do exist), though they are still much less prevalent than in England. In modern times many secondary pupils in Scotland's private schools will have fed in from the school's own fee-paying primary school, therefore there is considerable competition facing pupils from state primary schools who seek to enter a private school at secondary stage, via entrance examinations.
Selection
[
edit
]
Private schools, like state grammar schools, are free to select their pupils, subject to general legislation against
discrimination
. The principal forms of selection are financial, in that the pupil's family must be able to pay the school fees, and academic, the latter determined via interview and examination. Credit may also be given for musical, sporting or other talent. Entrance to some schools may be orientated to pupils whose parents practise a particular religion, or schools may require pupils to attend religious services.
Only a small minority of parents can afford school fees averaging (as of 2021) over £36,000 per annum for boarding pupils and £15,000 for day pupils, with additional costs for uniform, equipment and extra-curricular activities.
[6]
Scholarships and
means-tested
bursaries to assist the education of the less well-off are usually awarded by a process which combines academic and other criteria.
[20]
[21]
Private schools are generally academically selective, using the competitive
Common Entrance Examination
at ages 11+ or 13+. Schools often offer scholarships to attract abler pupils (which improves their average results); the standard sometimes approaches the
General Certificate of Secondary Education
(GCSE) intended for age 16. Poorly-performing pupils may be required to leave, and following GCSE results can be replaced in the
sixth form
by a new infusion of high-performing sixth-form-only pupils, which may distort apparent results.
[22]
On the other hand, pupils performing poorly cannot legally be excluded from a state school solely for poor performance.
[23]
Conditions
[
edit
]
Private schools, as compared with maintained schools, generally have more individual teaching; much lower pupil-teacher ratios at around 9:1;
[24]
longer teaching hours (sometimes including Saturday morning teaching) and homework (known as prep); though they have shorter terms. They also have more time for organised extra-curricular activities.
As boarding schools are fully responsible for their pupils throughout term-time, pastoral care is an essential part of boarding education, and many such schools have their own distinctive ethos, including social aspirations, manners and accents, associated with their own school traditions. Many former pupils aspire to send their own children to their old schools over successive generations. Most offer sporting, musical, dramatic and art facilities, sometimes with extra charges.
Educational achievement is generally very good. Independent school pupils are four times more likely to attain an A* at
GCSE
than their non-selective state sector counterparts, and twice as likely to attain an A grade at
A-level
. A much higher proportion go to university. Some schools specialise in particular strengths, whether academic, although this is not as common as it is in the
state sector
.
Independent schools can set their own discipline regime, with much greater freedom to exclude children, primarily exercised in the wider interests of the school. In England and Wales there are no requirements for teaching staff to have
Qualified Teacher Status
or to be registered with the General Teaching Council. In Scotland a teaching qualification and registration with the
General Teaching Council for Scotland
(GTCS) is mandatory for all teaching positions.
Economic impact
[
edit
]
In 2014 the Independent Schools Council commissioned a report to highlight the impact that private schools have on the British economy. The report calculated that private schools support an £11.7 billion contribution to gross value added (GVA) in Britain.
[25]
Criticisms
[
edit
]
Private schools are often criticised for being elitist, and seen as lying outside the spirit of the state system.
[26]
Many of the best-known
public schools
are extremely expensive, and many have entry criteria geared towards those who have been at private "feeder"
preparatory schools
. The Thatcher government introduced the
Assisted Places Scheme
in England and Wales in 1980, whereby the state paid the school fees for those pupils capable of gaining a place but unable to afford the fees. This was essentially a response to the decision of the previous Labour government in the mid-1970s to remove government funding of
direct grant grammar schools
, most of which then became private schools; some Assisted Places pupils went to the former direct-grant schools such as
Manchester Grammar School
. The scheme was terminated by the Labour government in 1997, and since then the private sector has moved to increase its own means-tested bursaries.
The former classics-based curriculum was also criticised for not providing skills in sciences or engineering, but was perhaps in response to the requirement of classics for entry to
Oxbridge
until the early 1960s, as well as a hangover from centuries ago when
only
Latin and Greek were taught at many public schools. It was
Martin Wiener
's opposition to this tendency which inspired his 1981 book
English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit: 1850?1980
. It became a huge influence on the
Thatcher
government's opposition to old-school gentlemanly
Toryism
. According to a 2010 report from the Department for Education, private school pupils have "the highest rates of achieving grades A or B in A-level maths and sciences" compared to grammar, specialist and mainstream state schools, and pupils at private schools account for a disproportionate number of the total number of A-levels in maths and sciences.
[27]
Some parents complain that their rights and their children's are compromised by vague and one-sided contracts which allow Heads to use discretionary powers unfairly, such as in
expulsion
on non-disciplinary grounds. They believe private schools have not embraced the principles of
natural justice
as adopted by the state sector, and
private law
as applied to Higher Education.
[28]
This belief is reinforced by the fact that the legal rights of pupils are governed by a private contract, as opposed to rights implemented by the national government. For instance, a pupil seeking admission to a state school that is rejected is legally entitled to appeal, whereas at a private school admissions are at the discretion of the governing body of the school.
[29]
In 2006, pupils at fee-paying schools made up 43 per cent of those selected for places at
Oxford University
and 38 per cent of those granted places at
Cambridge University
(although such pupils represent only 18 per cent of the 16 years old plus school population).
[13]
[30]
Charitable status
[
edit
]
A major area of debate in recent years has centred around the continuing charitable status of private schools, which means they are not charged business rates by local councils, amongst other benefits. This is estimated to save the schools about £200 per pupil and to cost the Exchequer about £100 million in tax breaks, assuming that an increase in fees would not result in any transfer of pupils from private to maintained sector.
[31]
Since the Charities Act was passed in November 2006, charitable status is based on an organisation providing a "public benefit", as judged by the
Charity Commission
.
[32]
In 2008, the Charity Commission published guidance, including guidance on public benefit and fee charging, setting out issues to be considered by charities charging high fees that many people could not afford. The
Independent Schools Council
was granted permission by the High Court to bring a judicial review of the Charity Commission's public benefit guidance as it affected the private education sector. This was heard by the
Upper Tribunal
at the same time as a reference by the Attorney General asking the Tribunal to consider how the public benefit requirement should operate in relation to fee-charging charitable schools. The Upper Tribunal's decision, published on 14 October 2011, concluded that in all cases there must be more than
de minimis
or token benefit for the poor, but that trustees of a charitable private school should decide what was appropriate in their particular circumstances.
[31]
The Charity Commission accordingly published revised public benefit guidance in 2013.
In
Scotland
, under the Charities and Trustee Investment Act (Scotland),
[33]
there is an entirely separate test of charitable status, overseen by the
Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator
, which assesses the public benefit
[34]
provided by each registered school charity.
[35]
An investigation into official exam data by the BBC's Radio 4 Today programme, in 2017, showed that 20% of private school pupils were given extra time for their GCSE and A level exams, as compared with less than 12% of pupils in public sector schools.
[36]
The most commonly given amount of extra exam time is 25%. Such 'exam access' arrangements are given for a range of disabilities and educational special needs such as
dyslexia
,
dyspraxia
and
ADHD
.
[37]
[38]
Types and degree classes
[
edit
]
In 2002 Jeremy Smith and Robin Naylor of the
University of Warwick
conducted a study into the determinants of degree performance at UK universities. Their study confirmed that the internationally recognized phenomenon whereby "children from more advantaged class backgrounds have higher levels of educational attainment than children from less-advantaged class backgrounds"
[39]
persists at university level in the
United Kingdom
.
The authors noted "a very well-determined and monotonically positive effect defined over Social Classes I to V" whereby, for both men and women, other things being equal, academic performance at university is better the more advantaged is the student's home background". but they also observed that a student educated at a private school was on average 6 per cent less likely to receive a first or an upper second class degree than a student from the same social class background, of the same gender, who had achieved the same A-level score at a state school. The averaged effect was described as very variable across the social class and A-level attainment of the candidates; it was "small and not strongly significant for students with high A-level scores" (i.e. for students at the more selective universities) and "statistically significant mostly for students from lower occupationally-ranked social-class backgrounds". Additionally, the study could not take into account the effect of a slightly different and more traditional subject mix studied by private students at university on university achievement. Despite these caveats, the paper attracted much press attention. The same study found wide variations between different independent schools, suggesting that students from a few of them were in fact significantly more likely to obtain the better degrees than state students of the same gender and class background having the same A-level score.
[40]
In 2011, a subsequent study led by Richard Partington at
Cambridge University
[41]
showed that A-level performance is "overwhelmingly" the best predictor for exam performance in the earlier years ("Part I") of the undergraduate degree at Cambridge. Partington's summary specified that "questions of school background and gender" ... "make only a marginal difference and the pattern ? particularly in relation to school background ? is in any case inconsistent."
A study commissioned by the
Sutton Trust
[42]
and published in 2010 focused mainly on the possible use of US-style SAT tests as a way of detecting a candidate's academic potential. Its findings confirmed those of the Smith & Naylor study in that it found that privately educated pupils who, despite their educational advantages, have only secured a poor A-level score, and who therefore attend less selective universities, do less well than state educated degree candidates with the same low A-level attainment. In addition, as discussed in the 2010 Buckingham report "HMC Schools: a quantitative analysis", because students from state schools tended to be admitted on lower A-level entry grades, relative to entry grades it could be claimed that these students had improved more.
[43]
A countervailing finding of the
Sutton Trust
study was that for students of a given level of A-level attainment it is almost twice as difficult to get a first at the most selective universities than at those on the other end of the scale. Private sector schools regularly dominate the top of the A-level league tables, and their students are more likely to apply to the most selective universities; as a result private sector students are particularly well represented at these institutions, and therefore only the very ablest of them are likely to secure the best degrees.
In 2013 the
Higher Education Funding Council for England
(HEFCE) published a study
[44]
noting, amongst other things, that a greater percentage of students who had attended a private school prior to university achieved a first or upper second class degree compared with students from state schools. Out of a starting cohort of 24,360 candidates having attended a private school and 184,580 having attended a state school, 64.9 per cent of the former attained a first or upper second class degree, compared to 52.7 per cent of the latter. No statistical comparisons of the two groups (State vs Private) were reported, with or without controls for student characteristics such as entry qualifications, so no inferences can be drawn on the relative performance of the two groups. The stand-out finding of the study was that private school students achieved better in obtaining graduate jobs and study, even when student characteristics were allowed for (sex, ethnicity, school type, entry qualifications, area of study).
In 2015, the UK press widely reported the outcome of research suggesting that school-leavers from state schools that attained similar A level grades go on to achieve higher undergraduate degree classes than their private school counterparts. The quoted figures, based on the degree results of all students who graduated in 2013/14, suggested that 82 per cent of state school pupils got firsts or upper seconds compared with 73 per cent of those from private schools. Later, HEFCE admitted that it had made a transposition error, and that in fact, 73 per cent of state school graduates gained a first or upper second class degree compared with 82 per cent of private school graduates.
[45]
This admission attracted far less publicity than the original erroneous assertion.
Across all English universities, state school students who scored two Bs and a C at A-level did on average eight per cent better at degree level than their privately educated counterparts.
[46]
Two Bs and a C represents an entry tariff of 112, well below the average demanded by any of the UK's
Russell Group
universities.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
"Types of school: Private schools"
.
GOV.UK
.
Archived
from the original on 29 January 2018
. Retrieved
28 April
2018
.
- ^
Warrell, Helen (2 April 2014).
"Private schools add nearly £12bn yearly to UK, says research"
.
Financial Times
. Retrieved
1 March
2023
.
- ^
Hensher, Philip (20 January 2012).
"Philip Hensher: Rejecting Oxbridge isn't clever?it's a mistake"
.
The Independent
. London.
Archived
from the original on 9 August 2012.
- ^
Green, Francis.
"Private schools and inequality"
.
ifs.org.uk
. Institute for FIscal Studies
. Retrieved
1 March
2023
.
- ^
"About ISC"
.
www.isc.co.uk
. Independent Schools Council
. Retrieved
1 March
2023
.
- ^
a
b
Staton, Bethan (11 May 2021).
"Growth in private school fees slows during pandemic"
.
Financial Times
. Retrieved
2 March
2023
.
- ^
"The Independent Schools Yearbook"
.
www.independentschoolsyearbook.co.uk/
.
- ^
"The Public Schools Yearbook"
.
Public Schools Year Book and Preparatory Schools Year Book1908, 1909
(via HathiTrust Digital Library ed.). London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 1889.
- ^
Spear's (October 2022).
"Britain's most expensive secondary schools"
.
spearswms.com
. Spear's Wealth Management
. Retrieved
2 March
2023
.
- ^
"Direct Grant Schools"
.
Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)
. House of Commons. 22 March 1978. col. 582W?586W.
Archived
from the original on 3 March 2016.
- ^
Bolton, Paul (2012).
"Education: Historical statistics"
(PDF)
. House of Commons Library.
- ^
"Why private schooling is on the decline in England"
.
The Economist
. 1 December 2015.
Archived
from the original on 12 October 2017.
- ^
a
b
Pupil Numbers
Archived
18 January 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
, Independent Schools Council.
- ^
Murray-West, Rosie (9 October 2006).
"Soaring school fees put private education out of reach for many"
.
The Telegraph
. London.
Archived
from the original on 11 December 2008
. Retrieved
19 May
2010
.
- ^
Chris Ryan & Luke Sibetia,
Private schooling in the UK and Australia
Archived
5 July 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
, Institute of Fiscal Studies, 2010
- ^
Response to Charity Commission draft guidance on public benefit
Archived
27 February 2008 at the
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, Independent Schools Council.
- ^
The Independent Schools Inspectorate (ISI)
Archived
25 August 2009 at the
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, Independent Schools Council.
- ^
"Facts and Statistics: Pupil numbers"
.
Scottish Council of Independent Schools
. Archived from
the original
on 28 February 2014
. Retrieved
25 August
2014
.
- ^
Independence
Archived
1 May 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
, Scottish Council of Independent Schools.
- ^
"Scholarships for Private Independent Schools"
. GetTheRightSchool.co.uk.
Archived
from the original on 31 August 2011
. Retrieved
5 April
2011
.
- ^
Nick Collins (26 July 2010).
"Richest independent schools give smallest bursaries"
.
The Daily Telegraph
. London.
Archived
from the original on 28 July 2010
. Retrieved
5 April
2011
.
- ^
Hackett, Geraldine; Baird, Tom (14 August 2005).
"Schools 'cull pupils to lift A-level rank'
"
.
The Times
. London.
Archived
from the original on 6 June 2010.
- ^
"School exclusion"
.
GOV.UK
. Retrieved
22 May
2019
.
- ^
Teaching Staff & Teacher/Pupil Ratio
Archived
31 October 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
, Independent Schools Council.
- ^
"Research ? ISC"
.
www.isc.co.uk
. Archived from
the original
on 13 April 2014.
- ^
Green, Francis;
Kynaston, David
(2019).
Engines of privilege : Britain's private school problem
. London: Bloomsbury.
ISBN
978-1-5266-0127-8
.
OCLC
1108696740
.
- ^
"Maths and science education: the supply of high achievers at A level"
(PDF)
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 12 July 2011
. Retrieved
3 July
2011
.
- ^
Phelps...Clark...
and now
Rycotewood
? Disappointment damages for breach of the contract to educate
Archived
13 October 2003 at
archive.today
by David Palfreyman, at the
Oxford Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies
(OxCHEPS), 2003
- ^
"School admissions code"
.
GOV.UK
. Retrieved
22 May
2019
.
- ^
Hackett, Geraldine (17 December 2006).
"Poorer pupils still fail to get into Oxbridge"
.
The Sunday Times
. London.
Archived
from the original on 6 June 2010.
- ^
a
b
Fairbairn, Catherine (October 2013).
"Charitable status and independent schools"
(PDF)
. House of Commons Library, Standard Note SN/HA/5222.
- ^
Public Benefit
Archived
7 October 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
, Charity Commission.
- ^
"Charities and Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005"
. Legislation.gov.uk. 26 May 2011.
Archived
from the original on 14 October 2012
. Retrieved
13 November
2013
.
- ^
"Public Benefit"
. SCIS. 1 January 1970.
Archived
from the original on 11 November 2013
. Retrieved
13 November
2013
.
- ^
"Reviews of charitable status"
. Oscr.org.uk.
Archived
from the original on 11 November 2013
. Retrieved
13 November
2013
.
- ^
Pluck, Andrea (10 February 2017).
"Private school pupils get more time for exams"
.
educationbusinessuk.net
.
Archived
from the original on 15 February 2017
. Retrieved
28 April
2018
.
- ^
Bateman, Tom (10 February 2017).
"Private school students gain exam time"
.
BBC News
.
Archived
from the original on 18 October 2017
. Retrieved
28 April
2018
.
- ^
"Extra Time In Exams: Your Child May Be Eligible"
.
huffingtonpost.co.uk
. 11 April 2016.
Archived
from the original on 6 October 2017
. Retrieved
28 April
2018
.
- ^
Erikson, Robert; Goldthorpe, John H.; Jackson, Michelle; Yaish, Meir; Cox, D. R. (2005).
"On class differentials in educational attainment"
.
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.
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Bibcode
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.
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.
PMC
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.
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.
- ^
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CiteSeerX
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.
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.
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