Collection of Old Norse poems
The title page of Olive Bray's English translation of
Codex Regius
entitled
Poetic Edda
depicting the tree
Yggdrasil
and a number of its inhabitants (1908) by
W. G. Collingwood
The
Poetic Edda
is the modern name for an untitled collection of
Old Norse
anonymous
narrative poems
in
alliterative verse
. It is distinct from the closely related
Prose Edda
, although both works are seminal to the study of
Old Norse poetry
. Several versions of the
Poetic Edda
exist: especially notable is the medieval
Icelandic
manuscript
Codex Regius
, which contains 31 poems.
[1]
The
Codex Regius
is arguably the most important extant source on
Norse mythology
and
Germanic heroic legends
. Since the early 19th century, it has had a powerful influence on
Scandinavian literature
, not only through its stories, but also through the visionary force and the dramatic quality of many of the poems. It has also been an inspiration for later innovations in
poetic meter
, particularly in
Nordic languages
, with its use of terse,
stress
-based metrical schemes that lack final rhymes, instead focusing on
alliterative devices
and strongly concentrated imagery. Poets who have acknowledged their debt to the
Codex Regius
include
Vilhelm Ekelund
,
August Strindberg
,
J. R. R. Tolkien
,
Ezra Pound
,
Jorge Luis Borges
, and
Karin Boye
.
The
Codex Regius
was written during the 13th century, but nothing was known of its whereabouts until 1643, when it came into the possession of
Brynjolfur Sveinsson
, then Bishop of
Skalholt
. At the time, versions of the
Prose Edda
were known in Iceland, but scholars speculated that there once was another Edda, an
Elder Edda
, which contained the
pagan
poems that
Snorri
quotes in his
Prose Edda
. When
Codex Regius
was discovered, it seemed that the speculation had proved correct, but modern scholarly research has shown that the
Prose Edda
was likely written first and that the two were, at most, connected by a common source.
[2]
[
page needed
]
Brynjolfur attributed the manuscript to
Sæmundr the Learned
, a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest. Modern scholars reject that attribution, but the name
Sæmundar Edda
is still sometimes associated with both the
Codex Regius
and versions of the
Poetic Edda
using it as a source.
Bishop Brynjolfur sent the manuscript as a present to the Danish king, hence the
Latin
name
Codex Regius,
lit.
'
Royal Book
'
. For centuries it was stored in the
Royal Library in Copenhagen
, but in 1971 it was returned to Iceland. Because air travel at the time was not entirely trustworthy with such precious cargo, it was transported by ship, accompanied by a naval escort.
[3]
Composition
[
edit
]
The
Eddic poems
are composed in
alliterative verse
. Most are in
fornyrðislag
("old story
metre
"), while
malahattr
("speech form") is a common variation. The rest, about a quarter, are composed in
ljoðahattr
("song form"). The language of the poems is usually clear and relatively unadorned.
Kennings
are often employed, though they do not arise as frequently, nor are they as complex, as those found in typical
skaldic poetry
.
Authorship
[
edit
]
Like most early poetry, the Eddic poems were
minstrel
poems, passed orally from singer to singer and from poet to poet for centuries. None of the poems are attributed to a particular author, though many of them show strong individual characteristics and are likely to have been the work of individual poets. While scholars have speculated on hypothetical authors, firm and accepted conclusions have never been reached.
Date
[
edit
]
Accurate dating of the poems has long been a source of scholarly debate. Firm conclusions are difficult to reach; lines from the Eddic poems sometimes appear in poems by known poets. For example,
Eyvindr skaldaspillir
composed in the latter half of the 10th century, and he uses a couple of lines in his
Hakonarmal
that are also found in
Havamal
. It is possible that he was quoting a known poem, but it is also possible that
Havamal
, or at least the
strophe
in question, is the younger derivative work.
The few demonstrably historical characters mentioned in the poems, such as
Attila
, provide a
terminus post quem
of sorts. The dating of the manuscripts themselves provides a more useful
terminus ante quem
.
Individual poems have individual clues to their age. For example,
Atlamal hin groenlenzku
is claimed by its title to have been composed in
Greenland
and seems so by some internal evidence. If so, it must have been composed no earlier than about 985, since there were no Scandinavians in Greenland until that time.
More certain than such circumstancial evidence are linguistic dating criteria. These can be arrived at by looking at
Skaldic poems
whose dates are more firmly known. For instance the particle
of
, corresponding to
ga-
or
ge-
in other old Germanic languages, has been shown to occur more frequently in Skaldic poems of earlier date.
[4]
Applying this criterion to Eddic poetry, Bjarne Fidjestøl found large variation, indicating that some of the poems were much older than others.
[5]
Other dating criteria include the use of the negative adverb
eigi
'not', and alliteration of
vr-
with
v-
. In western dialects of Old Norse the former became
r-
around the year 1000, but in some Eddic poems the word
vreiðr
, younger form
reiðr
, is seen to alliterate with words beginning in an original
v-
. This was observed already by
Olaf ‘White Skald’ Thordarson
, the author of the
Third Grammatical Treatise
, who termed this
v
before
r
the
vindandin forna
; 'the ancient use of
vend
'.
In some cases, old poems may have been interpolated with younger verses or merged with other poems. For example, stanzas 9?16 of
Voluspa
, the "Dvergatal" or "Roster of Dwarfs", is considered by some scholars to be an
interpolation
.
Location
[
edit
]
The problem of dating the poems is linked with the problem of determining where they were composed. Iceland was not settled until approximately 870, so anything composed before that time would necessarily have been elsewhere, most likely in
Scandinavia
. More recent poems, on the other hand, are likely Icelandic in origin.
Scholars have attempted to localize individual poems by studying the geography, flora, and fauna to which they refer. This approach usually does not yield firm results. For example, there are no wolves in Iceland, but we can be sure that Icelandic poets were familiar with the species. Similarly, the apocalyptic descriptions of
Voluspa
have been taken as evidence that the poet who composed it had seen a volcanic eruption in Iceland ? but this is hardly certain.
Contents
[
edit
]
The cover of Lee M. Hollander's
Poetic Edda
Poems similar to those found in the
Codex Regius
are also included in many editions of the
Poetic Edda
. Important manuscripts containing these other poems include
AM 748 I 4to
,
Hauksbok
, and
Flateyjarbok
. Many of the poems are also quoted in
Snorri
's
Prose
Edda
, but usually only in bits and pieces. What poems are included in an edition of the
Poetic Edda
depends on the editor. Those not found in the
Codex Regius
are sometimes called the "eddic appendix". Other Eddic-like poems not usually published in the
Poetic Edda
are sometimes called Eddica minora and were compiled by
Andreas Heusler
and Wilhelm Ranisch in their 1903 book titled
Eddica minora: Dichtungen eddischer Art aus den Fornaldarsogur und anderen Prosawerken
.
[6]
English translators are not consistent on the translations of the names of the Eddic poems or on how the Old Norse forms should be rendered in English. Up to three translated titles are given below, taken from the translations of
Bellows
,
Hollander
, and Larrington with proper names in the normalized English forms found in
John Lindow
's
Norse Mythology
and in Andy Orchard's
Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend
.
Mythological poems
[
edit
]
In the
Codex Regius
[
edit
]
- Voluspa
(
Wise-woman's prophecy, The Prophecy of the Seeress, The Seeress's Prophecy
)
- Havamal
(
The Ballad of the High One, The Sayings of Har, Sayings of the High One
)
- Vafþruðnismal
(
The Ballad of Vafthrudnir, The Lay of Vafthrudnir, Vafthrudnir's Sayings
)
- Grimnismal
(
The Ballad of Grimnir, The Lay of Grimnir, Grimnir's Sayings
)
- Skirnismal
(
The Ballad of Skirnir, The Lay of Skirnir, Skirnir's Journey
)
- Harbarðsljoð
(
The Poem of Harbard, The Lay of Harbard, Harbard's Song
)
- Hymiskviða
(
The Lay of Hymir, Hymir's Poem
)
- Lokasenna
(
Loki's Wrangling, The
Flyting
of Loki, Loki's Quarrel
)
- Þrymskviða
(
The Lay of Thrym, Thrym's Poem
)
- Volundarkviða
(
The Lay of Volund
)
- Alvissmal
(
The Ballad of Alvis, The Lay of Alvis, All-Wise's Sayings
)
Not in the
Codex Regius
[
edit
]
- Baldrs draumar
(
Baldr's Dreams
)
- Grottasongr
(
The Mill's Song, The Song of Grotti
)
- Rigsþula
(
The Song of Rig, The Lay of Rig, The List of Rig
)
- Hyndluljoð
(
The Poem of Hyndla, The Lay of Hyndla, The Song of Hyndla
)
- Voluspa in skamma
(
The short Voluspa, The Short Seeress' Prophecy, Short Prophecy of the Seeress
) - This poem, sometimes presented separately, is often included as an interpolation within
Hyndluljoð.
- Svipdagsmal
(
The Ballad of Svipdag, The Lay of Svipdag
) ? This title, originally suggested by
Bugge
, actually covers two separate poems. These poems are late works and not included in most editions after 1950:
- Hrafnagaldr Oðins
(
Odins's Raven Song, Odin's Raven Chant
). (A late work not included in most editions after 1900).
- Gullkarsljoð
(
The Poem of Gullkar
). (A late work not included in most editions after 1900).
Heroic lays
[
edit
]
After the mythological poems, the
Codex Regius
continues with
heroic lays
about mortal heroes, examples of
Germanic heroic legend
. The
heroic lays
are to be seen as a whole in the
Edda
, but they consist of three layers: the story of
Helgi Hundingsbani
, the story of the
Nibelungs
, and the story of
Jormunrekkr
, king of the
Goths
. These are, respectively, Scandinavian, German, and Gothic in origin. As far as historicity can be ascertained,
Attila
,
Jormunrekkr
, and
Brynhildr
actually existed, taking Brynhildr to be partly based on
Brunhilda of Austrasia
, but the chronology has been reversed in the poems.
In the
Codex Regius
[
edit
]
- The Helgi Lays
- Helgakviða Hundingsbana I
or
Volsungakviða
(
The First Lay of Helgi Hundingsbane, The First Lay of Helgi the Hunding-Slayer, The First Poem of Helgi Hundingsbani
)
- Helgakviða Hjorvarðssonar
(
The Lay of Helgi the Son of Hjorvard, The Lay of Helgi Hjorvardsson, The Poem of Helgi Hjorvardsson
)
- Helgakviða Hundingsbana II
or
Volsungakviða in forna
(
The Second Lay of Helgi Hundingsbane, The Second Lay of Helgi the Hunding-Slayer, A Second Poem of Helgi Hundingsbani
)
- The Niflung Cycle
- Fra dauða Sinfjotla
(
Of Sinfjotli's Death, Sinfjotli's Death, The Death of Sinfjotli
) (A short prose text.)
- Gripisspa
(
Gripir's Prophecy, The Prophecy of Gripir
)
- Reginsmal
(
The Ballad of Regin, The Lay of Regin
)
- Fafnismal
(
The Ballad of Fafnir, The Lay of Fafnir
)
- Sigrdrifumal
(
The Ballad of The Victory-Bringer, The Lay of Sigrdrifa
)
- Brot af Sigurðarkviðu
(
Fragment of a Sigurd Lay, Fragment of a Poem about Sigurd
)
- Guðrunarkviða I
(
The First Lay of Gudrun
)
- Sigurðarkviða hin skamma
(
The Short Lay of Sigurd, A Short Poem about Sigurd
)
- Helreið Brynhildar
(
Brynhild's Hell-Ride, Brynhild's Ride to Hel, Brynhild's Ride to Hell
)
- Drap Niflunga
(
The Slaying of The Niflungs, The Fall of the Niflungs, The Death of the Niflungs
)
- Guðrunarkviða II
(
The Second Lay of Gudrun
or
Guðrunarkviða hin forna
The Old Lay of Gudrun
)
- Guðrunarkviða III
(
The Third Lay of Gudrun
)
- Oddrunargratr
(
The Lament of Oddrun, The Plaint of Oddrun, Oddrun's Lament
)
- Atlakviða
(
The Lay of Atli
). The full manuscript title is
Atlakviða hin grœnlenzka
, that is,
The
Greenland
Lay of Atli
, but editors and translators generally omit the Greenland reference as a probable error from confusion with the following poem.
- Atlamal hin groenlenzku
(
The Greenland Ballad of Atli, The Greenlandish Lay of Atli, The Greenlandic Poem of Atli
)
- The Jormunrekkr Lays
- Guðrunarhvot
(
Gudrun's Inciting, Gudrun's Lament, The Whetting of Gudrun.
)
- Hamðismal
(
The Ballad of Hamdir, The Lay of Hamdir
)
Not in the
Codex Regius
[
edit
]
Several of the
legendary sagas
contain poetry in the Eddic style. Their age and importance is often difficult to evaluate but the
Hervarar saga
, in particular, contains interesting poetic interpolations.
English translations
[
edit
]
The
Elder
or
Poetic Edda
has been translated numerous times, the earliest printed edition being that by
Cottle 1797
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCottle1797 (
help
)
, though some short sections had been translated as early as the 1670s. Some early translators relied on a
Latin
translation of the
Edda
, including
Cottle
.
[7]
Opinions differ on the best way to translate the text, on the use or rejection of archaic language, and the rendering of terms lacking a clear English analogue. Still, Cottle's 1797 translation is now considered very inaccurate.
[7]
A comparison of the second and third verses (lines 5?12) of the
V?luspa
is given below:
Ek man j?tna
ar of borna,
þas forðum mik
fœdda h?fðu ;
niu mank h?ima,
niu iviði,
mj?tvið mæran
fyr mold neðan.
Ar vas alda
þars Ymir byggði,
vasa sandr ne sær,
ne svalar unnir ;
j?rð fansk æva
ne upphiminn ;
gap vas ginnunga,
?n gras hv?rgi.
(
Finnur 1932
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFFinnur1932 (
help
)
(unchanged orthography)
|
The Jotuns I remember
early born,
those who me of old
have reared.
I nine worlds remember,
nine trees,
the great central tree,
beneath the earth.
There was in times of old,
where Ymir dwelt,
nor sand nor sea,
nor gelid waves ;
earth existed not,
nor heaven above,
'twas a chaotic chasm,
and grass nowhere,
(
Thorpe 1866
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFThorpe1866 (
help
)
|
I remember the Giants born of yore,
who bred me up long ago.
I remember nine Worlds, nine Sibyls,
a glorious Judge beneath the earth.
In the beginning, when naught was,
there was neither sand nor sea nor the cold waves,
nor was earth to be seen nor heaven above.
There was a Yawning Chasm [chaos], but grass nowhere,
(
Vigfusson & Powell 1883
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFVigfussonPowell1883 (
help
)
†
|
I remember of yore were born the Jotuns,
they who aforetime fostered me :
nine worlds I remember, nine in the Tree,
the glorious Fate Tree that springs 'neath the Earth.
'Twas the earliest of times when Ymir lived ;
then was sand nor sea nor cooling wave,
nor was Earth found ever, nor Heaven on high,
there was Yawning of Deeps and nowhere grass :
(
Bray 1908
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFBray1908 (
help
)
|
I remember yet the giants of yore,
Who gave me bread in the days gone by ;
Nine worlds I knew, the nine in the tree
With mighty roots beaneath the mold.
Of old was the age when Ymir lived ;
Sea nor cool waves nor sand there were ;
Earth had not been, nor heaven above,
But a yawning gap, and grass nowhere.
(
Bellows 1923
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFBellows1923 (
help
)
|
I call to mind the kin of etins
which long ago did give me life.
Nine worlds I know, the nine abodes
of the glorious world-tree the ground beneath.
In earliest times did Ymir live:
was nor sea nor land nor salty waves,
neither earth was there nor upper heaven,
but a gaping nothing, and green things nowhere.
(
Hollander 1962
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFHollander1962 (
help
)
|
I tell of Giants from times forgotten.
Those who fed me in former days:
Nine worlds I can reckon, nine roots of the Tree.
The wonderful Ash, way under the ground
When Ymir lived long ago
Was no sand or sea, no surging waves.
Nowhere was there earth nor heaven above.
But a grinning gap and grass nowhere.
(
Auden & Taylor 1969
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFAudenTaylor1969 (
help
)
|
I remember giants of ages past,
those who called me one of their kin;
I know how nine roots form nine worlds
under the earth where the Ash Tree rises.
Nothing was there when time began,
neither sands nor seas nor cooling waves,
Earth was not yet, nor the high heavens,
but a gaping emptiness nowhere green.
(
Terry 1990
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFTerry1990 (
help
)
|
I, born of giants, remember very early
those who nurtured me then;
I remember nine worlds, I remember nine giant women,
the mighty Measuring-Tree below the earth.
Young were the years when Ymir made his settlement,
there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves;
earth was nowhere nor the sky above,
chaos yawned, grass was there nowhere.
(
Larrington 1996
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFLarrington1996 (
help
)
|
I remember giants
born early in time,
who long ago
had reared me
Nine worlds I remember,
nine wood-ogresses,
glorious tree of good measure,
under the ground.
It was early in the ages
when Ymir made his dwelling:
There was not sand nor sea
nor chill waves.
Earth was not to be found
nor above it heaven:
a gulf was there of gaping voids
and grass nowhere,
(
Dronke 1997
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFDronke1997 (
help
)
|
I recall those giants, born early on,
who long ago brought me up;
nine worlds I recall, nine wood-dwelling witches,
the famed tree of fate down under the earth.
It was early in ages when Ymir made his home,
there was neither sand nor sea, nor cooling waves;
no earth to be found, nor heaven above:
a gulf beguiling, nor grass anywhere.
(
Orchard 2011
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFOrchard2011 (
help
)
|
I remember being reared by Jotuns,
in days long gone. If I look back, I recall
nine worlds, nine wood-witches,
that renowned tree of fate below the Earth
Ymir struck camp when time began.
No land, sand or sea folding on itself,
no sky, earth or grass swaying atop its girth,
only the cavern of chaos's gaping gulf.
(
Dodds 2014
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFDodds2014 (
help
)
|
I remember giants born early in time
those nurtured me long ago;
I remember nine worlds, I remember nine giant women,
the mighty Measuring-Tree below the earth.
Early in time Ymir made his settlement,
there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves;
earth was nowhere nor the sky above,
a void of yawning chaos, grass was there nowhere
(
Larrington 2014
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFLarrington2014 (
help
)
|
I remember the giants
born so long ago;
in those ancient days
they raised me.
I remember nine worlds,
nine giantesses,
and the seed
from which Yggdrasil sprang.
It was at the very beginning,
it was Ymir's time,
there was no sand, no sea,
no cooling waves,
no earth,
no sky,
no grass,
just Ginnungagap.
(
Crawford 2015
)
harv error: no target: CITEREFCrawford2015 (
help
)
|
† The prose translation lacks line breaks, inserted here to match those in the Norse verse given in the same work.
|
Allusions and quotations
[
edit
]
- As noted above, the
Prose Edda
of
Snorri Sturluson
makes much use of the works included in the
Poetic Edda
, though he may well have had access to other compilations that contained the poems and there is no evidence that he used the
Poetic Edda
or even knew of it.
- The
Volsunga saga
is a prose version of much of the Niflung cycle of poems. Due to several missing pages (see
Great Lacuna
) in the
Codex Regius
, the
Volsunga saga
is the oldest complete source for the Norse version of much of the story of
Sigurð
. Only 22 stanzas of the
Sigurðarkviða
survive in the
Codex Regius
, plus four stanzas from the missing section which are quoted in the
Volsunga saga
.
- J. R. R. Tolkien
, a
philologist
and
de facto
[
citation needed
]
Professor of Old Norse familiar with the Eddas, utilized concepts from them in his 1937 fantasy novel
The Hobbit
, and in other works. For example:
See also
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Anderson, Rasmus B. (1876),
Norse Mythology: Myths of the Eddas
, Chicago: S.C. Griggs and company; London: Trubner & Co., Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific,
ISBN
1-4102-0528-2
, Reprinted 2003
- Bjornsson, Arni, ed. (1975),
Snorra-Edda
, Reykjavik. Iðunn
- Magnussson, Asgeir Blondal (1989),
Islensk orðsifjabok
, Reykjavik
- Lindow, John
(2001),
Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs
, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
ISBN
0-19-515382-0
- Orchard, Andy (1997),
Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend
, London: Cassell,
ISBN
0-304-36385-5
- Briem, Olafur, ed. (1985),
Eddukvæði
, Reykjavik: Skalholt
- Tolkien, J.R.R.
(1988),
Tolkien, Christopher
(ed.),
The Return of the Shadow
, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 240
External links
[
edit
]
Wikisource
has original text related to this article:
References
[
edit
]
- ^
John Lindow (2002).
Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs
. Oxford University Press. pp. 11?.
ISBN
978-0-19-983969-8
.
- ^
Acker, Paul; Larrington, Carolyne (2002),
The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology
- ^
Dodds, Jeramy (2014).
The Poetic Edda
. Coach House Books. p. 12.
ISBN
978-1770563858
.
- ^
Kuhn, Hans. 1929.
Das Fullwort of-um im Altwestnordischen. Eine Untersuchung zur Geschichte der germanischen Prafixe: Ein Beitrag zur altgermanischen Metrik.
Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
- ^
Fidjestøl, Bjarne. 1999.
The dating of Eddic poetry: A historical survey and methodological investigation.
Edited by Odd Einar Haugen. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitals Forlag.
- ^
Harris, Joseph (2005). "Eddic Poetry".
Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide
(second ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press in association with the Medieval Academy of America. p. 68.
ISBN
978-0-8020-3823-4
.
- ^
a
b
Larrington, Carolyne (2007), Clark, David; Phelpstead, Carl (eds.),
"Translating the Poetic Edda into English"
(PDF)
,
Old Norse Made New
, Viking Society for Northern Research, pp. 21?42
- ^
Shippey, Tom
(2003),
The Road to Middle-earth
, Houghton Mifflin, Ch. 3 pp. 70?71,
ISBN
0-618-25760-8
- ^
Ratecliff, John D.
(2007), "Return to Bag-End",
The History of The Hobbit
, vol. 2, HarperCollins, Appendix III,
ISBN
978-0-00-725066-0
|
---|
Mythological poems
| |
---|
Heroic Lays
| Codex Regius
| Helgi Lays
| |
---|
Niflung Cycle
| |
---|
Jormunrekkr Lays
| |
---|
|
---|
Non-Codex Regius
| |
---|
|
---|
Later poems
| |
---|
Manuscripts
| |
---|
See also
| |
---|