Family of flowering plants commonly known as grasses
"Gramineae" redirects here. Not to be confused with
Graminea
.
Poaceae
(
), also called
Gramineae
(
), is a large and nearly ubiquitous
family
of
monocotyledonous
flowering plants
commonly known as
grasses
. It includes the
cereal
grasses,
bamboos
, the grasses of natural
grassland
and species cultivated in
lawns
and
pasture
. The latter are commonly referred to collectively as
grass
.
With around 780
genera
and around 12,000 species,
[4]
the Poaceae is the fifth-largest
plant family
, following the
Asteraceae
,
Orchidaceae
,
Fabaceae
and
Rubiaceae
.
[5]
The Poaceae are the most economically important plant family, providing
staple foods
from domesticated
cereal
crops such as
maize
,
wheat
,
rice
,
barley
, and
millet
as well as
feed
for meat-producing animals. They provide, through direct human consumption, just over one-half (51%) of all dietary energy; rice provides 20%,
[6]
wheat supplies 20%, maize (corn) 5.5%, and other
grains
6%.
[
citation needed
]
Some members of the Poaceae are used as building materials (
bamboo
,
thatch
, and
straw
); others can provide a source of
biofuel
, primarily via the conversion of maize to
ethanol
.
Grasses have
stems
that are hollow except at the
nodes
and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation allowing it to cope with frequent grazing.
Grasslands
such as
savannah
and
prairie
where grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute 40.5% of the land area of the
Earth
, excluding
Greenland
and
Antarctica
.
[7]
Grasses are also an important part of the vegetation in many other habitats, including
wetlands
,
forests
and
tundra
.
Though they are commonly called "grasses", groups such as the
seagrasses
,
rushes
and
sedges
fall outside this family. The rushes and sedges are related to the Poaceae, being members of the
order
Poales
, but the seagrasses are members of the order
Alismatales
. However, all of them belong to the
monocot
group of plants.
Description
Diagram of a typical lawn grass plant
Grasses may be
annual
or
perennial
herbs
,
[8]
: 10
generally with the following characteristics (the image gallery can be used for reference): The
stems
of grasses, called
culms
, are usually cylindrical (more rarely flattened, but not 3-angled) and are hollow, plugged at the
nodes
, where the leaves are attached.
[8]
[9]
Grass
leaves
are nearly always alternate and distichous (in one plane), and have parallel veins.
[8]
: 11
Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem and a blade with entire (i.e., smooth) margins.
[8]
: 11
The leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with
silica
phytoliths
, which discourage grazing animals; some, such as
sword grass
, are sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs called the
ligule
lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath.
[8]
: 11
Flowers
of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in
spikelets
, each having one or more florets.
[8]
: 12
The spikelets are further grouped into
panicles or spikes
. The part of the spikelet that bears the florets is called the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two (or sometimes fewer)
bracts
at the base, called
glumes
, followed by one or more florets.
[8]
: 13
A floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts, one external?the
lemma
?and one internal?the
palea
. The flowers are usually
hermaphroditic
?
maize
being an important exception?and mainly
anemophilous
or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play a role.
[10]
The
perianth
is reduced to two scales, called
lodicules
,
[8]
: 11
that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea; these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. The
fruit
of grasses is a
caryopsis
, in which the seed coat is fused to the fruit wall.
[8]
: 16
A
tiller
is a leafy shoot other than the first shoot produced from the seed.
[8]
: 11
Growth and development
Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from elongated stem tips. This low growth point evolved in response to grazing animals and allows grasses to be
grazed
or
mown
regularly without severe damage to the plant.
[11]
: 113?114
Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch-type (also called caespitose),
stoloniferous
, and
rhizomatous
.
[12]
The success of the grasses lies in part in their morphology and growth processes and in part in their physiological diversity. There are both
C3
and
C4
grasses, referring to the photosynthetic pathway for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway, linked to specialized
Kranz leaf anatomy
, which allows for increased
water use efficiency
, rendering them better adapted to hot, arid environments.
[13]
The C3 grasses are referred to as "cool-season" grasses, while the C4 plants are considered "warm-season" grasses.
[8]
: 18?19
- Annual cool-season ?
wheat
,
rye
, annual bluegrass (annual meadowgrass,
Poa annua
), and
oat
- Perennial cool-season ? orchardgrass (cocksfoot,
Dactylis glomerata
), fescue (
Festuca
spp.),
Kentucky bluegrass
and perennial ryegrass (
Lolium perenne
)
- Annual warm-season ?
maize
,
sudangrass
, and
pearl millet
- Perennial warm-season ?
big bluestem
,
Indiangrass
,
Bermudagrass
and
switchgrass
.
Although the C4 species are all in the
PACMAD clade
(see diagram below), it seems that various forms of C4 have arisen some twenty or more times, in various subfamilies or genera. In the
Aristida
genus for example, one species (
A. longifolia
) is C3 but the approximately 300 other species are C4. As another example, the whole tribe of
Andropogoneae
, which includes
maize
,
sorghum
,
sugar cane
, "
Job's tears
", and
bluestem grasses
, is C4.
[14]
Around 46 percent of grass species are C4 plants.
[15]
Taxonomy
The name Poaceae was given by
John Hendley Barnhart
in 1895,
[16]
: 7
based on the tribe Poeae described in 1814 by
Robert Brown
, and the type genus
Poa
described in 1753 by
Carl Linnaeus
. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek
π?α (poa, "fodder")
.
Evolutionary history
Grasses include some of the most versatile
plant life-forms
. They became widespread toward the end of the
Cretaceous
period, and fossilized
dinosaur
dung (
coprolites
) have been found containing
phytoliths
of a variety that include grasses that are related to modern
rice
and
bamboo
.
[17]
Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush
rain forests
, dry
deserts
, cold mountains and even
intertidal habitats
, and are currently the most widespread plant type; grass is a valuable source of food and energy for all sorts of wildlife.
A cladogram shows subfamilies and approximate species numbers in brackets:
[14]
Before 2005, fossil findings indicated that grasses evolved around 55 million years ago. Finds of grass-like
phytoliths
in
Cretaceous
dinosaur
coprolites
from the latest Cretaceous (
Maastrichtian
) aged
Lameta Formation
of India have pushed this date back to 66 million years ago.
[18]
[19]
In 2011, fossils from the same deposit were found to belong to the modern rice tribe
Oryzeae
, suggesting substantial diversification of major lineages by this time.
[20]
In 2018, a study described grass microfossils extracted from the teeth of the
hadrosauroid
dinosaur
Equijubus
normani
from northern China, dating to the
Albian
stage of the
Early Cretaceous
approximately 113?100 million years ago, which were found to belong to primitive lineages within Poaceae, similar in position to the Anomochlooideae. These are currently the oldest known grass fossils.
[1]
The relationships among the three subfamilies Bambusoideae, Oryzoideae and Pooideae in the BOP clade have been resolved: Bambusoideae and Pooideae are more closely related to each other than to Oryzoideae.
[21]
This separation occurred within the relatively short time span of about 4 million years.
According to
Lester Charles King
, the spread of grasses in the
Late Cenozoic
would have changed patterns of
hillslope evolution
favouring slopes that are convex upslope and concave downslope and lacking a
free face
were common. King argued that this was the result of more slowly acting surface wash caused by carpets of grass which in turn would have resulted in relatively more
soil creep
.
[22]
[23]
Subdivisions
There are about 12,000 grass species in about 771 genera that are classified into 12 subfamilies.
[24]
See the full
list of Poaceae genera
.
- Anomochlooideae
Pilg.
ex
Potztal
, a small lineage of broad-leaved grasses that includes two genera (
Anomochloa
,
Streptochaeta
)
- Pharoideae
L.G.Clark
&
Judz.
, a small lineage of grasses of three genera, including
Pharus
and
Leptaspis
- Puelioideae
L.G.Clark,
M.Kobay.
,
S.Mathews
,
Spangler
&
E.A.Kellogg
, a small lineage of the African genus
Puelia
- Pooideae
, including
wheat
,
barley
,
oats
, brome-grass (
Bromus
), reed-grasses (
Calamagrostis
) and many lawn and pasture grasses such as
bluegrass
(
Poa
)
- Bambusoideae
, including
bamboo
- Ehrhartoideae
, including
rice
and
wild rice
- Aristidoideae
, including
Aristida
- Arundinoideae
, including
giant reed
and
common reed
- Chloridoideae
, including the lovegrasses (
Eragrostis
, about 350 species, including
teff
), dropseeds (
Sporobolus
, some 160 species),
finger millet
(
Eleusine coracana
(L.) Gaertn.), and the muhly grasses (
Muhlenbergia
, about 175 species)
- Panicoideae
, including
panic grass
,
maize
,
sorghum
,
sugarcane
, most
millets
,
fonio
, "
Job's tears
", and
bluestem grasses
- Micrairoideae
- Danthonioideae
, including
pampas grass
Distribution
The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on
Earth
. Grasses are found on every continent,
[25]
[26]
including
Antarctica
. The Antarctic hair grass,
Deschampsia antarctica
is one of only two plant species native to the western
Antarctic Peninsula
.
Ecology
Grasses are the
dominant
vegetation in many habitats, including
grassland
,
salt-marsh
,
reedswamp
and
steppes
. They also occur as a smaller part of the vegetation in almost every other terrestrial habitat.
[
citation needed
]
Grass-dominated
biomes
are called grasslands. If only large, contiguous areas of grasslands are counted, these biomes cover 31% of the planet's land.
[27]
Grasslands include
pampas
,
steppes
, and
prairies
.
[28]
Grasses provide food to many
grazing
mammals,
[29]
as well as to many species of
butterflies
and
moths
.
[30]
[31]
Many types of animals eat grass as their main source of food, and are called
graminivores
? these include
cattle
,
sheep
,
horses
,
rabbits
and many
invertebrates
, such as
grasshoppers
and the caterpillars of many
brown butterflies
. Grasses are also eaten by
omnivorous
or even occasionally by primarily
carnivorous
animals.
Grasses dominate certain
biomes
, especially
temperate grasslands
, because many species are adapted to grazing and fire.
[32]
Grasses are unusual in that the
meristem
is near the bottom of the plant; hence, grasses can quickly recover from cropping at the top.
[33]
The evolution of large grazing animals in the
Cenozoic
contributed to the spread of grasses. Without large grazers, fire-cleared areas are quickly colonized by grasses, and with enough rain, tree seedlings. Trees eventually outcompete most grasses. Trampling grazers kill seedling trees but not grasses.
[11]
: 137
Sexual reproduction and meiosis
Sexual reproduction
and
meiosis
have been studied in
rice
,
maize
,
wheat
and
barley
.
[34]
Meiosis research in these crop species is linked to crop improvement, since meiotic
recombination
is an important component of
plant breeding
.
[34]
Unlike in animals, the specification of both male and female plant
germlines
occurs late in development during flowering. The transition from the
sporophyte
phase to the
gametophyte
state is initiated by meiotic entry.
[34]
Uses
Grasses are, in human terms, perhaps the most economically important plant family.
[35]
Their economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and
lawns
. They have been grown as food for
domesticated animals
for up to 6,000 years
[
citation needed
]
and the grains of grasses such as
wheat
, rice, maize (corn) and
barley
have been the most important human
food crops
. Grasses are also used in the manufacture of
thatch
,
paper
,
fuel
,
clothing
,
insulation
, timber for
fencing
,
furniture
,
scaffolding
and
construction
materials, floor
matting
,
sports turf
and
baskets
.
Food production
Of all crops grown, 70% are grasses.
[36]
Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called
cereals
or
grains
(although the latter term, when used agriculturally, refers to both cereals and similar seeds of other plant species, such as
buckwheat
and
legumes
). Three cereals—rice, wheat, and maize (corn)—provide more than half of all calories consumed by humans.
[37]
Cereals constitute the major source of
carbohydrates
for humans and perhaps the major source of protein; these include rice (in
southern
and
eastern Asia
), maize (in
Central
and
South America
), and wheat and barley (in
Europe
,
northern Asia
and the
Americas
).
Sugarcane
is the major source of
sugar
production. Additional food uses of sugarcane include
sprouted grain
,
shoots
, and
rhizomes
, and in drink they include
sugarcane juice
and
plant milk
, as well as
rum
,
beer
,
whisky
, and
vodka
.
Bamboo shoots
are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh, fermented and canned versions.
Lemongrass
is a grass used as a culinary herb for its citrus-like flavor and scent.
Many species of grass are grown as
pasture
for foraging or as
fodder
for prescribed
livestock
feeds, particularly in the case of
cattle
,
horses
, and
sheep
. Such grasses may be cut and stored for later feeding, especially for the winter, in the form of bales of
hay
or
straw
, or in silos as
silage
. Straw (and sometimes hay) may also be used as bedding for animals.
An example of a
sod
-forming perennial grass used in agriculture is
Thinopyrum intermedium
.
Industry
Grasses are used as raw material for a multitude of purposes, including construction and in the composition of building materials such as
cob
, for insulation, in the manufacture of paper and board such as
oriented structural straw board
. Grass
fiber
can be used for making
paper
,
biofuel
production,
[38]
nonwoven fabrics, and as replacement for glass fibers used in reinforced plastics.
[39]
Bamboo scaffolding
is able to withstand typhoon-force winds that would break steel scaffolding.
[27]
Larger bamboos and
Arundo donax
have stout culms that can be used in a manner similar to timber,
Arundo
is used to make reeds for
woodwind instruments
, and bamboo is used for innumerable implements.
[40]
Phragmites australis
(common reed) is important for
thatching
and wall construction of homes in Africa.
[41]
Grasses are used in
water treatment
systems,
[42]
in
wetland conservation
and
land reclamation
, and used to lessen the erosional impact of urban storm water runoff.
[43]
Palaeoecological reconstructions
Pollen
morphology, particularly in the
Poaceae
family, is key to figuring out their evolutionary relationships and
how environments have changed over time
.
[44]
Grass pollen grains, however, often look the same, making it hard to use them for detailed climate or environmental reconstructions.
[45]
[46]
Grass pollen has a
single pore
and can vary a lot in size, from about 20 to over 100 micrometers, and this size difference has been looked into for clues about past habitats, to tell apart
domesticated
grasses from wild ones,
[47]
[48]
[49]
and to indicate various biological features like how they perform
photosynthesis
,
[50]
their breeding systems,
[50]
[51]
and genetic complexity.
[52]
[53]
[45]
Yet, there's ongoing debate about how effective pollen size is for piecing together historical landscapes and weather patterns, considering other factors such as genetic material amount might also affect pollen size.
[54]
[55]
[45]
Despite these challenges, new techniques in
Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
(FT-IR) and improved statistical methods are now helping to better identify these similar-looking pollen types.
[46]
Lawn and ornamental use
Grasses are the primary plants used in lawns, which themselves derive from grazed
grasslands
in Europe.
[
citation needed
]
They also provide an important means of erosion control (e.g., along roadsides), especially on sloping land.
[
citation needed
]
Grass lawns are an important covering of playing surfaces in many sports, including
football (soccer)
,
American football
,
tennis
,
golf
,
cricket
,
softball
and
baseball
.
Ornamental grasses, such as
perennial
bunch grasses
, are used in many styles of
garden design
for their foliage, inflorescences and seed heads. They are often used in
natural landscaping
,
xeriscaping
and slope and beach stabilization in contemporary landscaping,
wildlife gardening
, and
native plant gardening
.
[
citation needed
]
They are used as screens and hedges.
[56]
Sports turf
Grass playing fields, courses and pitches are the traditional playing surfaces for many
sports
, including
American football
,
association football
,
baseball
,
cricket
,
golf
, and
rugby
. Grass surfaces are also sometimes used for
horse racing
and
tennis
. Type of maintenance and species of grass used may be important factors for some sports, less critical for others. In some sports facilities, including indoor domes and other places where maintenance of a grass field would be difficult, grass may be replaced with
artificial turf
, a synthetic grass-like substitute.
[57]
Cricket
In cricket, the pitch is the strip of carefully mowed and rolled grass where the bowler bowls. In the days leading up to the match it is repeatedly mowed and rolled to produce a very hard, flat surface for the ball to bounce off.
[58]
Golf
Grass on golf courses is kept in three distinct conditions: that of the
rough
, the
fairway
, and the
putting green
. Grass on the fairway is mown short and even, allowing the player to strike the ball cleanly. Playing from the rough is a disadvantage because the long grass may affect the flight of the ball. Grass on the putting green is the shortest and most even, ideally allowing the ball to roll smoothly over the surface. An entire industry revolves around the development and marketing of turf grass varieties.
[59]
Tennis
In tennis, grass is grown on very hard-packed soil, and the bounce of a
tennis ball
may vary depending on the grass's health, how recently it has been mowed, and the wear and tear of recent play.
[
citation needed
]
The surface is softer than
hard courts
and
clay
(other tennis surfaces), so the ball bounces lower, and players must reach the ball faster resulting in a different style of play which may suit some players more than others.
[
citation needed
]
Among the world's most prestigious court for grass tennis is Centre Court at
Wimbledon, London
which hosts the final of the annual
Wimbledon Championships
in England, one of the four
Grand Slam
tournaments.
Economically important grasses
A number of grasses are invasive species that damage natural ecosystems, including forms of
Phragmites australis
which are native to Eurasia but has spread around the world.
[60]
[61]
Role in society
Grasses have long had significance in human society. They have been cultivated as feed for people and
domesticated animals
for thousands of years. The primary ingredient of
beer
is usually barley or wheat, both of which have been used for this purpose for over 4,000 years.
[62]
In some places, particularly in
suburban
areas, the maintenance of a grass lawn is a sign of a homeowner's responsibility to the overall appearance of their neighborhood. One work credits lawn maintenance to:
...the desire for upward mobility and its manifestation in the lawn. As Virginia Jenkins, author of
The Lawn
, put it quite bluntly, "Upper middle-class Americans emulated aristocratic society with their own small, semi-rural estates." In general, the lawn was one of the primary selling points of these new suburban homes, as it shifted social class designations from the equity and ubiquity of urban homes connected to the streets with the upper-middle class designation of a "healthy" green space and the status symbol that is the front lawn.
[63]
[64]
In communities with
drought
problems, watering of lawns may be
restricted
to certain times of day or days of the week.
[65]
Many US municipalities and homeowners' associations have rules which require lawns to be maintained to certain specifications, sanctioning those who allow the grass to grow too long.
[66]
[67]
The
smell of freshly cut grass
is produced mainly by
cis-3-Hexenal
.
[68]
Some common
aphorisms
involve grass. For example:
- "The grass is always greener on the other side" suggests an alternate state of affairs will always seem preferable to one's own.
- "Don't let the grass grow under your feet" tells someone to get moving.
- "A
snake
in the grass" means dangers that are hidden.
- "When
elephants
fight, it is the grass which suffers" tells of bystanders caught in the crossfire.
A folk myth about grass is that it refuses to grow where any violent death has occurred.
[69]
Image gallery
-
Leaves of
Poa trivialis
showing the
ligules
-
Bamboo stem and leaves, nodes are evident
-
-
Wheat spike and spikelet
-
Spikelet opened to show caryopsis
-
-
Grass
-
-
-
Barley mature spikes (
Hordeum vulgare
)
-
Illustration depicting both staminate and pistillate flowers of maize (
Zea mays
)
-
A grass flower head (meadow foxtail) showing the plain-coloured flowers with large anthers
-
Anthers detached from a meadow foxtail flower
-
-
-
See also
References
- ^
a
b
Yan Wu; Hai-Lu You; Xiao-Qiang Li (2018).
"Dinosaur-associated Poaceae epidermis and phytoliths from the Early Cretaceous of China"
.
National Science Review
.
5
(5): 721?727.
doi
:
10.1093/nsr/nwx145
.
- ^
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009).
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III"
.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
.
161
(2): 105?121.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x
.
hdl
:
10654/18083
.
- ^
HASTON, ELSPETH; RICHARDSON, JAMES E.; STEVENS, PETER F.; CHASE, MARK W.; HARRIS, DAVID J. (October 2009).
"The Linear Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (LAPG) III: a linear sequence of the families in APG III"
.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
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161
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:
10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01000.x
.
- ^
Christenhusz, M.J.M.; Byng, J.W. (2016).
"The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase"
.
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.
Archived
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- ^
"Angiosperm Phylogeny Website"
.
Archived
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. Retrieved
20 March
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(PDF)
. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 2004. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2022-02-28.
- ^
Reynolds, S.G.
"Grassland of the world"
.
www.fao.org
.
Archived
from the original on 2016-09-20
. Retrieved
2016-10-04
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
Cope, T.; Gray, A. (2009).
Grasses of the British Isles
. London:
Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland
.
ISBN
9780901158420
.
- ^
Clayton, W.D.; Renvoise, S.A. (1986).
Genera Graminum: Grasses of the world
. London: Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
ISBN
9781900347754
.
- ^
"Insect Pollination of Grasses".
Australian Journal of Entomology
.
3
: 74. 1964.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1440-6055.1964.tb00625.x
.
S2CID
264140616
.
- ^
a
b
Attenborough, David
(1984).
The Living Planet
.
British Broadcasting Corporation
.
ISBN
978-0-563-20207-3
.
- ^
Staller, John (2009-12-02).
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ISBN
978-3-642-04506-6
.
- ^
Gibson, David J. (2009).
Grasses and Grassland Ecology
. Oxford University Press. p. 63.
ISBN
978-0-19-852918-7
.
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External links
Look up
grass
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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Uses
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