Component of blood aiding in coagulation
Platelets
or
thrombocytes
(from
Ancient Greek
θρ?μβο?
(
thrombos
)
'clot', and
κ?το?
(
kutos
)
'cell') are a
blood
component whose function (along with the
coagulation factors
) is to react to
bleeding
from
blood vessel
injury by clumping, thereby initiating a
blood clot
.
[1]
Platelets have no
cell nucleus
; they are fragments of
cytoplasm
derived from the
megakaryocytes
[2]
of the
bone marrow
or lung,
[3]
which then enter the circulation. Platelets are found only in mammals, whereas in other
vertebrates
(e.g.
birds
,
amphibians
), thrombocytes circulate as intact
mononuclear cells
.
[4]
: 3
One major function of platelets is to contribute to
hemostasis
: the process of stopping bleeding at the site of interrupted
endothelium
. They gather at the site and, unless the interruption is physically too large, they plug the hole. First, platelets attach to substances outside the interrupted endothelium:
adhesion
. Second, they change shape, turn on receptors and secrete
chemical messengers
:
activation
. Third, they connect to each other through receptor bridges:
aggregation
.
[5]
Formation of this
platelet plug
(primary hemostasis) is associated with activation of the
coagulation cascade
, with resultant
fibrin
deposition and linking (secondary hemostasis). These processes may overlap: the spectrum is from a predominantly platelet plug, or "white clot" to a predominantly fibrin, or "red clot" or the more typical mixture. Berridge adds
retraction
and
platelet inhibition
as fourth and fifth steps,
[6]
while others would add a sixth step,
wound repair
.
[
citation needed
]
Platelets participate in both innate
[7]
and adaptive
[8]
intravascular immune responses.
In addition to facilitating the clotting process, platelets contain
cytokines
and
growth factors
which can promote wound healing and regeneration of damaged tissues.
[9]
[10]
Term
[
edit
]
The term
thrombocyte
(clot cell) came into use in the early 1900s and is sometimes used as a synonym for platelet; but not generally in the scientific literature, except as a root word for other terms related to platelets (e.g.
thrombocytopenia
meaning low platelets).
[4]
: v3
The term thrombocytes are proper for mononuclear cells found in the blood of non-mammalian vertebrates: they are the functional equivalent of platelets, but circulate as intact cells rather than cytoplasmic fragments of bone marrow megakaryocytes.
[4]
: 3
In some contexts, the word
thrombus
is used interchangeably with the word
clot
, regardless of its composition (white, red, or mixed). In other contexts it is used to contrast a normal from an abnormal clot:
thrombus
arises from physiologic hemostasis,
thrombosis
arises from a pathologic and excessive quantity of clot.
[11]
In a third context it is used to contrast the result from the process:
thrombus
is the result,
thrombosis
is the process.
Morphology
[
edit
]
Structure
[
edit
]
Structurally the platelet can be divided into four zones, from peripheral to innermost:
[
citation needed
]
- Peripheral zone ? rich in
glycoproteins
required for platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation. For example,
GPIb/IX/V
;
GPVI
;
GPIIb/IIIa
- Sol-gel zone ? rich in
microtubules
and
microfilaments
, allowing platelets to maintain a discoid shape
- Organelle zone ? rich in platelet granules.
Alpha granules
contain clotting mediators such as
factor V
,
factor VIII
,
fibrinogen
,
fibronectin
, platelet-derived growth factor, and
chemotactic agents
. Delta granules, or
dense bodies
, contain
ADP
,
calcium
, and
serotonin
, which are platelet-activating mediators.
- Membranous zone ? membranes derived from
megakaryocyte
smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
organized into a dense tubular system that is responsible for
thromboxane A2
synthesis. This dense tubular system is connected to the surface platelet membrane to aid thromboxane A2 release.
Shape
[
edit
]
Circulating inactivated platelets are biconvex discoid (lens-shaped) structures,
[12]
[4]
: 117?118
2?3 μm in greatest diameter.
[13]
Activated platelets have cell membrane projections covering their surface.
In a first approximation, the shape can be considered similar to
oblate spheroids
, with a semiaxis ratio of 2 to 8.
[14]
This approximation can be used to model the hydrodynamic and optical properties of a population, as well as to restore the geometric parameters of individual measured platelets by
flow cytometry
.
[15]
More accurate biophysical models of platelet surface morphology that model its shape from first principles, make it possible to obtain a more realistic platelet geometry in a calm and activated state.
[16]
Development
[
edit
]
- Megakaryocyte and platelet production is regulated by
thrombopoietin
, a hormone produced in the kidneys and liver.
- Each megakaryocyte produces between 1,000 and 3,000 platelets during its lifetime.
- An average of 10
11
platelets are produced daily in a healthy adult.
- Reserve platelets are stored in the spleen and are released when needed by splenic contraction induced by the sympathetic nervous system.
- The average life span of circulating platelets is 8 to 9 days.
[17]
Life span of individual platelets is controlled by the internal apoptotic regulating pathway, which has a Bcl-x
L
timer.
[18]
- Old platelets are destroyed by
phagocytosis
in the spleen and liver.
Hemostasis
[
edit
]
The fundamental function of platelets is to clump together to stop acute bleeding. This process is complex, as more than 193 proteins and 301 interactions are involved in platelet dynamics.
[5]
Despite much overlap, platelet function can be modeled in three steps:
Adhesion
[
edit
]
Thrombus
formation on an intact
endothelium
is prevented by
nitric oxide
,
[19]
prostacyclin
,
[20]
and
CD39
.
[21]
Endothelial cells
attach to the subendothelial
collagen
by
von Willebrand factor
(VWF), which these cells produce. VWF is also stored in the
Weibel-Palade bodies
of the endothelial cells and secreted constitutively into the blood. Platelets store vWF in their alpha granules.
When the endothelial layer is disrupted, collagen and VWF anchor platelets to the subendothelium. Platelet
GP1b-IX-V
receptor binds with VWF; and GPVI receptor and integrin α2β1 bind with collagen.
[22]
Activation
[
edit
]
Inhibition
[
edit
]
The intact endothelial lining
inhibits
platelet activation by producing
nitric oxide
, endothelial-
ADPase
, and
PGI
2
(prostacyclin). Endothelial-ADPase degrades the platelet activator
ADP
.
[
citation needed
]
Resting platelets maintain active calcium
efflux
via a
cyclic AMP
-activated calcium pump. Intracellular calcium concentration determines platelet activation status, as it is the
second messenger
that drives platelet conformational change and degranulation. Endothelial
prostacyclin
binds to
prostanoid
receptors on the surface of resting platelets. This event stimulates the coupled
Gs
protein to increase
adenylate cyclase
activity and increases the production of cAMP, further promoting the efflux of calcium and reducing intracellular calcium availability for platelet activation.
[
citation needed
]
ADP on the other hand binds to
purinergic receptors
on the platelet surface. Since the thrombocytic purinergic receptor
P2Y12
is coupled to
Gi
proteins, ADP reduces platelet adenylate cyclase activity and cAMP production, leading to accumulation of calcium inside the platelet by inactivating the cAMP calcium efflux pump. The other ADP-receptor
P2Y1
couples to Gq that activates phospholipase C-beta 2 (
PLCB2
), resulting in
inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate
(IP3) generation and intracellular release of more calcium. This together induces platelet activation. Endothelial ADPase degrades ADP and prevents this from happening.
Clopidogrel
and related antiplatelet medications also work as purinergic receptor
P2Y12
antagonists
.
[
citation needed
]
Data suggest that ADP activates the
PI3K/Akt
pathway during a first wave of aggregation, leading to thrombin generation and
PAR?1
activation, which evokes a second wave of aggregation.
[23]
Trigger (induction)
[
edit
]
Platelet activation begins seconds after adhesion occurs. It is triggered when
collagen
from the subendothelium binds with its receptors (
GPVI
receptor and integrin α2β1) on the platelet. GPVI is associated with the Fc receptor gamma chain and leads via the activation of a tyrosine kinase cascade finally to the activation of PLC-gamma2 (
PLCG2
) and more calcium release.
[
citation needed
]
Tissue factor
also binds to
factor VII
in the blood, which initiates the extrinsic
coagulation
cascade to increase
thrombin
production. Thrombin is a potent platelet activator, acting through Gq and G12. These are
G protein-coupled receptors
and they turn on calcium-mediated
signaling pathways
within the platelet, overcoming the baseline calcium efflux. Families of three G proteins (Gq, Gi, G12) operate together for full activation. Thrombin also promotes secondary fibrin-reinforcement of the platelet plug. Platelet activation in turn degranulates and releases
factor V
and
fibrinogen
, potentiating the coagulation cascade. Platelet plugging and coagulation occur simultaneously, with each inducing the other to form the final fibrin-crosslinked thrombus.
[
citation needed
]
Components (consequences)
[
edit
]
GPIIb/IIIa activation
[
edit
]
Collagen-mediated GPVI signalling increases the platelet production of
thromboxane A2
(TXA2) and decreases the production of
prostacyclin
. This occurs by altering the metabolic flux of platelet's
eicosanoid
synthesis pathway, which involves enzymes
phospholipase A2
,
cyclo-oxygenase 1
, and
thromboxane-A synthase
. Platelets secrete thromboxane A2, which acts on the platelet's own
thromboxane receptors
on the platelet surface (hence the so-called "out-in" mechanism), and those of other platelets. These receptors trigger intraplatelet signaling, which converts
GPIIb/IIIa
receptors to their active form to initiate
aggregation
.
[5]
Granule secretion
[
edit
]
Platelets contain
dense granules
, lambda granules, and
alpha granules
. Activated platelets secrete the contents of these granules through their canalicular systems to the exterior. Bound and activated platelets degranulate to release platelet
chemotactic
agents to attract more platelets to the site of endothelial injury. Granule characteristics:
- α granules (alpha granules)
? containing
P-selectin
,
platelet factor 4
,
transforming growth factor-β1
,
platelet-derived growth factor
,
fibronectin
,
B-thromboglobulin
,
vWF
,
fibrinogen
, and
coagulation factors
V
and
XIII
- δ granules (delta or dense granules)
? containing
ADP
or
ATP
,
calcium
, and
serotonin
- γ granules (gamma granules) ? similar to
lysosomes
and contain several hydrolytic enzymes
- λ granules (lambda granules) ? contents involved in resorption during later stages of vessel repair
Morphology change
[
edit
]
As shown by flow cytometry and
electron microscopy
, the most sensitive sign of activation, when exposed to platelets using ADP, are morphological changes.
[24]
Mitochondrial hyperpolarization is a key event in initiating morphology changes.
[25]
Intraplatelet calcium concentration increases, stimulating the interplay between the microtubule/actin filament complex. The continuous changes in shape from the unactivated to the fully activated platelet are best seen via
scanning electron microscopy
. The three steps along this path are named
early dendritic
,
early spread,
and
spread
. The surface of the unactivated platelet looks similar to the surface of the brain?a wrinkled appearance from numerous shallow folds that increase the surface area;
early dendritic
, an octopus with multiple arms and legs;
early spread
, an uncooked frying egg in a pan, the "yolk" is the central body; and the
spread
, a cooked fried egg with a denser central body.
These changes are all brought about by the interaction of the microtubule/actin complex with the platelet cell membrane and open canalicular system (OCS), which is an extension and invagination of that membrane. This complex runs just beneath these membranes and is the chemical motor that pulls the invaginated OCS out of the interior of the platelet, like turning pants pockets inside out, creating the dendrites. This process is similar to the mechanism of contraction in a
muscle cell
.
[26]
The entire OCS thus becomes indistinguishable from the initial platelet membrane as it forms the "fried egg". This dramatic increase in surface area comes about with neither stretching nor adding phospholipids to the platelet membrane.
[27]
Platelet-coagulation factor interactions: coagulation facilitation
[
edit
]
Platelet activation causes its membrane surface to become negatively charged. One of the signaling pathways turns on
scramblase
, which moves negatively charged
phospholipids
from the inner to the outer platelet membrane surface. These phospholipids then bind the
tenase
and
prothrombinase
complexes, two of the sites of interplay between platelets and the coagulation cascade. Calcium ions are essential for the binding of these coagulation factors.
In addition to interacting with vWF and fibrin, platelets interact with thrombin, Factors X, Va, VIIa, XI, IX, and prothrombin to complete formation via the coagulation cascade.
[28]
[29]
Human platelets do not express
tissue factor
.
[28]
Rat platelets do express tissue factor protein and carry both tissue factor pre-mRNA and mature mRNA.
[30]
Aggregation
[
edit
]
Platelet aggregation begins minutes after activation, and occurs as a result of turning on the
GPIIb/IIIa
receptor, allowing these receptors to bind with
vWF
or
fibrinogen
.
[5]
Each platelet has around 60,000 of these receptors.
[31]
When any one or more of at least nine different platelet surface receptors are turned on during activation, intraplatelet signaling pathways cause existing GpIIb/IIIa receptors to change shape ? curled to straight ? and thus become capable of binding.
[5]
Since fibrinogen is a rod-like protein with nodules on either end capable of binding GPIIb/IIIa, activated platelets with exposed GPIIb/IIIa can bind fibrinogen to aggregate. GPIIb/IIIa may also further anchor the platelets to subendothelial vWF for additional structural stabilisation.
Classically it was thought that this was the only mechanism involved in aggregation, but three other mechanisms have been identified which can initiate aggregation, depending on the velocity of blood flow (i.e. shear range).
[32]
Immune function
[
edit
]
Platelets have a central role in
innate immunity
, initiating and participating in multiple inflammatory processes, directly binding and even destroying pathogens. Clinical data show that many patients with serious bacterial or viral infections have
thrombocytopenia
, thus reducing their contribution to inflammation. Platelet-leukocyte aggregates (PLAs) found in circulation are typical in
sepsis
or
inflammatory bowel disease
, showing the connection between thrombocytes and immune cells.
[33]
The platelet cell membrane has receptors for collagen. Following rupture of the blood vessel wall, platelets are exposed and adhere to the collagen in the surrounding tissue.
Immunothrombosis
[
edit
]
As hemostasis is a basic function of thrombocytes in mammals, it also has its uses in possible infection confinement.
[7]
In case of injury, platelets, together with the coagulation cascade, provide the first line of defense by forming a blood clot. Hemostasis and host defense were thus intertwined in evolution. For example, in the
Atlantic horseshoe crab
(estimated to be over 400 million years old), the only blood cell type, the
amebocyte
, facilitates both the hemostatic function and the encapsulation and phagocytosis of
pathogens
by means of
exocytosis
of intracellular granules containing
bactericidal
defense molecules. Blood clotting supports immune function by trapping the bacteria.
[34]
Although thrombosis, blood coagulation in intact blood vessels, is usually viewed as a pathological immune response, leading to obturation of lumen of blood vessel and subsequent hypoxic tissue damage, in some cases, directed thrombosis, called immunothrombosis, can locally control the spread of an infection. The thrombosis is directed in concordance of platelets,
neutrophils
and
monocytes
. The process is initiated either by immune cells by activating their pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), or by platelet-bacterial binding. Platelets can bind to bacteria either directly through thrombocytic PRRs
[33]
and bacterial surface proteins, or via plasma proteins that bind both to platelets and bacteria.
[35]
Monocytes respond to bacterial
pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs), or
damage-associated molecular patterns
(DAMPs) by activating the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. Neutrophils facilitate the blood coagulation by
NETosis
, while platelets facilitate neutrophils' NETosis. NETs bind tissue factor, binding the coagulation centers to the location of infection. They also activate the intrinsic coagulation pathway by providing its negatively charged surface to the factor XII. Other neutrophil secretions, such as proteolytic enzymes which cleave coagulation inhibitors, also bolster the process.
[7]
In case of imbalance throughout the regulation of immunothrombosis, this process can become aberrant. Regulatory defects in immunothrombosis are suspected to be a major factor in pathological thrombosis in forms such as
disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC) or
deep vein thrombosis
. DIC in sepsis is a prime example of both the dysregulated coagulation process as well as an undue systemic inflammatory response, resulting in a multitude of microthrombi of similar composition to that in physiological immunothrombosis ? fibrin, platelets, neutrophils and NETs.
[7]
Inflammation
[
edit
]
Platelets rapidly deploy to sites of injury or infection, and potentially modulate inflammatory processes by interacting with
leukocytes
and secreting
cytokines
,
chemokines
, and other inflammatory mediators.
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
Platelets also secrete
platelet-derived growth factor
(PDGF).
Platelets modulate neutrophils by forming platelet-leukocyte aggregates (PLAs). These formations induce upregulated production of αmβ2 (
Mac-1
) integrin in neutrophils. Interaction with PLAs also induces degranulation and increased phagocytosis in neutrophils.
Platelets are the largest source of soluble
CD40L
which induces production of
reactive oxygen species
(ROS) and upregulate expression of adhesion molecules, such as
E-selectin
,
ICAM-1
, and
VCAM-1
, in neutrophils, activates macrophages and activates cytotoxic response in
T
and
B lymphocytes
.
[33]
Mammalian platelets lacking nucleus are able to conduct autonomous locomotion.
[41]
Platelets are active scavengers, scaling walls of blood vessels and reorganising the thrombus. They are able to recognize and adhere to many surfaces, including bacteria, and can envelop them in their open canalicular system (OCP), leading to a proposal to name the process as
covercytosis
(OCS) rather than phagocytosis, as OCS is merely an invagination of outer plasma membrane. These platelet-bacteria bundles provide an interaction platform for neutrophils that destroy bacteria using the NETosis and phagocytosis.
Platelets also participate in chronic inflammatory disease, such as
synovitis
or
rheumatoid arthritis
.
[42]
Platelets are activated by collagen receptor
glycoprotein IV
(GPVI). Proinflammatory platelet microvesicles trigger constant cytokine secretion from neighboring
fibroblast-like synoviocytes
, most prominently
Il-6
and
Il-8
. Inflammatory damage to the surrounding extracellular matrix continuously reveals more collagen, maintaining microvesicle production.
Adaptive immunity
[
edit
]
Activated platelets are able to participate in
adaptive immunity
, interacting with
antibodies
. They are able to specifically bind
IgG
through
FcγRIIA
, a receptor for IgG's constant fragment (Fc). When activated and bound to IgG
opsonised
bacteria, platelets release reactive oxygen species (ROS), antimicrobial peptides,
defensins
, kinocidins and
proteases
, killing the bacteria directly.
[43]
Platelets also secrete proinflammatory and procoagulant mediators such as inorganic
polyphosphates
or
platelet factor 4
(PF4), connecting innate and adaptive immune responses.
[43]
[44]
Signs and symptoms of disorders
[
edit
]
Spontaneous and excessive bleeding can occur because of platelet disorders. This bleeding can be caused by deficient numbers of platelets, dysfunctional platelets, or platelet densities over 1 million/microliter. (The excessive numbers create a relative von Willebrand factor deficiency due to sequestration.)
[45]
[46]
Bleeding due to a platelet disorder or a coagulation factor disorder can be distinguished by the characteristics and location of the bleeding.
[4]
: 815, Table 39-4
Platelet bleeding involves bleeding from a cut is prompt and excessive, but can be controlled by pressure; spontaneous bleeding into the skin which causes a purplish stain named by its size:
petechiae
,
purpura
,
ecchymoses
; bleeding into mucous membranes causing bleeding gums, nose bleed, and gastrointestinal bleeding; menorrhagia; and intraretinal and intracranial bleeding.
Excessive numbers of platelets, and/or normal platelets responding to abnormal vessel walls, can result in
venous thrombosis
and
arterial thrombosis
. The symptoms depend on the thrombosis site.
Measurement and Testing
[
edit
]
Measurement
[
edit
]
Platelet concentration in the blood (i.e. platelet count), can be measured manually using a
hemocytometer
, or by placing blood in an automated platelet analyzer using particle counting, such as a
Coulter counter
or optical methods.
[47]
Most common
blood testing methods
include platelet count in their measurements, usually reported as
PLT
.
[48]
Platelet concentrations vary between individuals and over time, with the population average between 250,000 and 260,000 cells per mm
3
(equivalent to per microliter), but the typical laboratory accepted normal range is between 150,000 to 400,000 cells per mm
3
or 150?400 × 10
9
per liter.
[48]
[47]
On a stained
blood smear
, platelets appear as dark purple spots, about 20% of the diameter of red blood cells. The smear reveals size, shape, qualitative number, and
clumping
. A healthy adult typically has 10 to 20 times more red blood cells than platelets.
Bleeding time
[
edit
]
Bleeding time
was developed as a test of platelet function by Duke in 1910.
[49]
Duke's test measured the time taken for bleeding to stop from a standardized wound in the ear lobe that was blotted every 30 seconds, considering less than 3 minutes as normal.
[50]
A normal bleeding time reflects sufficient platelet numbers and function, plus normal
microvasculature
.
Multiple electrode aggregometry
[
edit
]
In
multiple electrode aggregometry
, anticoagulated whole blood is mixed with saline and a platelet agonist in a single-use cuvette with two pairs of electrodes. The increase in impedance between the electrodes as platelets aggregate onto them, is measured and visualized as a curve.
[51]
[52]
Light transmission aggregometry
[
edit
]
In light transmission aggregometry (LTA),
platelet-rich plasma
is placed between a light source and a
photocell
. Unaggregated plasma allows relatively little light to pass through. After adding an agonist, the platelets aggregate, increasing light transmission, which is detected by a photocell.
[55]
PFA-100
[
edit
]
The
PFA-100
(Platelet Function Assay ? 100) is a system for analysing platelet function in which citrated whole blood is aspirated through a disposable cartridge containing an aperture within a membrane coated with either collagen and epinephrine or collagen and ADP. These agonists induce platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation, leading to rapid occlusion of the aperture and cessation of blood flow termed the closure time (CT). An elevated CT with EPI and collagen can indicate intrinsic defects such as
von Willebrand disease
,
uremia
, or circulating platelet inhibitors. A follow-up test involving collagen and ADP is used to indicate if the abnormal CT with collagen and EPI was caused by the effects of acetyl sulfosalicylic acid (aspirin) or medications containing inhibitors.
[56]
Disorders
[
edit
]
Low platelet concentration is called
thrombocytopenia
, and is due to either decreased production or increased destruction. Elevated platelet concentration is called
thrombocytosis
, and is either
congenital
, reactive (to
cytokines
), or due to unregulated production: one of the
myeloproliferative neoplasms
or certain other myeloid
neoplasms
. A disorder of platelet function is called a
thrombocytopathy
or a platelet function disorder.
[4]
: vii
Normal platelets can respond to an abnormality on the vessel wall rather than to hemorrhage, resulting in inappropriate platelet adhesion/activation and
thrombosis
: the formation of a clot within an intact vessel. This type of thrombosis arises by mechanisms different from those of a normal clot: extending the fibrin of
venous thrombosis
; extending an unstable or ruptured arterial plaque, causing
arterial thrombosis
; and microcirculatory thrombosis. An arterial
thrombus
may partially obstruct blood flow, causing downstream
ischemia
, or may completely obstruct it, causing downstream
tissue death
.:
[4]
: vii
The three broad categories of platelet disorders are "not enough", "dysfunctional", and "too many".
[4]
: vii
Thrombocytopenia
[
edit
]
Altered platelet function (thrombocytopathy)
[
edit
]
- Congenital
- Disorders of adhesion
- Disorders of activation
- Disorders of aggregation
- Disorders of coagulant activity
- Acquired
Thrombocytosis and thrombocythemia
[
edit
]
- Reactive
- Chronic infection
- Chronic inflammation
- Malignancy
- Hyposplenism (post-splenectomy)
- Iron deficiency
- Acute blood loss
- Myeloproliferative neoplasms
? platelets are both elevated and activated
- Associated with other myeloid neoplasms
- Congenital
Pharmacology
[
edit
]
Anti-inflammatory drugs
[
edit
]
Some drugs used to treat inflammation have the unwanted side effect of suppressing normal platelet function. These are the
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDS).
Aspirin
irreversibly disrupts platelet function by inhibiting
cyclooxygenase
-1 (COX1), and hence normal hemostasis. The resulting platelets are unable to produce new cyclooxygenase because they have no DNA. Normal platelet function does not return until the use of aspirin has ceased and enough of the affected platelets have been replaced by new ones, which can take over a week.
Ibuprofen
, another
NSAID
, does not have such a long duration effect, with platelet function usually returning within 24 hours,
[63]
and taking ibuprofen before aspirin prevents the irreversible effects of aspirin.
[64]
Drugs that suppress platelet function
[
edit
]
These drugs are used to prevent thrombus formation.
Oral agents
[
edit
]
Drugs that stimulate platelet production
[
edit
]
Intravenous agents
[
edit
]
Therapies
[
edit
]
Transfusion
[
edit
]
Indications
[
edit
]
Platelet transfusion
is most frequently used to correct unusually low platelet counts, either to prevent spontaneous bleeding (typically at counts below 10×10
9
/L) or in anticipation of medical procedures that necessarily involve some bleeding. For example, in patients undergoing
surgery
, a level below 50×10
9
/L is associated with abnormal surgical bleeding, and
regional anaesthetic
procedures such as
epidurals
are avoided for levels below 80×10
9
/L.
[65]
Platelets may also be transfused when the platelet count is normal but the platelets are dysfunctional, such as when an individual is taking aspirin or
clopidogrel
.
[66]
Finally, platelets may be transfused as part of a
massive transfusion protocol
, in which the three major blood components (red blood cells, plasma, and platelets) are transfused to address severe
hemorrhage
. Platelet transfusion is contraindicated in
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
(TTP), as it fuels the
coagulopathy
.
Collection
[
edit
]
Platelets are either isolated from collected units of whole blood and pooled to make a therapeutic dose, or collected by
platelet apheresis
: blood is taken from the donor, passed through a device which removes the platelets, and the remainder is returned to the donor in a closed loop. The industry standard is for platelets to be tested for bacteria before transfusion to avoid septic reactions, which can be fatal. Recently the AABB Industry Standards for
Blood Banks
and Transfusion Services (5.1.5.1) has allowed use of pathogen reduction technology as an alternative to bacterial screenings in platelets.
[67]
Pooled whole-blood platelets, sometimes called "random" platelets, are separated by one of two methods.
[68]
In the US, a unit of whole blood is placed into a large
centrifuge
in what is referred to as a "soft spin". At these settings, the platelets remain suspended in the plasma. The
platelet-rich plasma
(PRP) is removed from the red cells, then centrifuged at a faster setting to harvest the platelets from the plasma. In other regions of the world, the unit of whole blood is centrifuged using settings that cause the platelets to become suspended in the "
buffy coat
" layer, which includes the platelets and the white blood cells. The "buffy coat" is isolated in a sterile bag, suspended in a small amount of red blood cells and plasma, then centrifuged again to separate the platelets and plasma from the red and white blood cells. Regardless of the initial method of preparation, multiple donations may be combined into one container using a sterile connection device to manufacture a single product with the desired therapeutic dose.
Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is exposed to fewer donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a
cancer
patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets receives repeated donations from a specific donor to minimize risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example,
riboflavin and UV light treatments
can reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products.
[69]
[70]
Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes.
[71]
In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than "soft spin" centrifugation.
Storage
[
edit
]
Platelets collected by either method have a typical shelf life of five days. This results in supply shortages, as testing donations often requires up to a full day. No effective preservative solutions have been devised for platelets.
Platelets are stored under constant agitation at 20?24 °C (68?75.2 °F). Units cannot be refrigerated as this causes platelets to change shape and lose function. Storage at room temperature provides an environment where any introduced bacteria may proliferate and subsequently cause
bacteremia
. The United States requires products to be tested for the presence of bacterial contamination before transfusion.
[72]
Delivery
[
edit
]
Platelets do not need to belong to the same A-B-O blood group as the recipient or be cross-matched to ensure immune compatibility between donor and recipient unless they contain a significant amount of red blood cells (RBCs). The presence of RBCs imparts a reddish-orange color to the product and is usually associated with whole-blood platelets. Some sites may type platelets, but this is not critical.
Prior to issuing platelets to the recipient, they may be irradiated to prevent
transfusion-associated graft versus host disease
or they may be washed to remove the plasma.
The change in the recipient's platelet count after transfusion is termed the "increment" and is calculated by subtracting the pre-transfusion platelet count from the post-transfusion count. Many factors affect the increment including body size, the number of platelets transfused, and clinical features that may cause premature destruction of the transfused platelets. When recipients fail to demonstrate an adequate post-transfusion increment, this is termed
platelet transfusion refractoriness
.
Platelets, either apheresis-derived or random-donor, can be processed through a volume reduction process. In this process, the platelets are spun in a centrifuge and plasma is removed, leaving 10 to 100 mL of platelet concentrate. Such volume-reduced platelets are normally transfused only to neonatal and pediatric patients when a large volume of plasma could overload the child's small circulatory system. The lower volume of plasma also reduces the chances of an adverse transfusion reaction to plasma proteins.
[73]
Volume reduced platelets have a shelf life of four hours.
[74]
Wound repair
[
edit
]
The blood clot is only a temporary solution to stop bleeding; tissue repair is needed. Small interruptions in the endothelium are handled by physiological mechanisms; large interruptions by a trauma surgeon.
[75]
The fibrin is slowly dissolved by the fibrinolytic enzyme,
plasmin
, and the platelets are cleared by
phagocytosis
.
[76]
Platelets release
platelet-derived growth factor
(PDGF), a potent
chemotactic
agent; and
TGF beta
, which stimulates the deposition of
extracellular matrix
;
fibroblast growth factor
,
insulin-like growth factor 1
, platelet-derived
epidermal growth factor
, and
vascular endothelial growth factor
. Local application of these factors in increased concentrations through
platelet-rich plasma
(PRP) is used as an adjunct in wound healing.
[77]
Non-mammals
[
edit
]
Instead of platelets, non-mammalian vertebrates have nucleated thrombocytes, which resemble
B lymphocytes
in morphology. They aggregate in response to thrombin, but not to ADP, serotonin, nor adrenaline, as platelets do.
[78]
[79]
History
[
edit
]
- George Gulliver
in 1841 drew pictures of platelets
[80]
using the twin lens (compound) microscope invented in 1830 by
Joseph Jackson Lister
.
[81]
This microscope improved resolution sufficiently to make it possible to see platelets for the first time.
- William Addison
in 1842 drew pictures of a platelet-fibrin clot.
[82]
- Lionel Beale
in 1864 was the first to publish a drawing showing platelets.
[83]
- Max Schultze
in 1865 described what he called "spherules", which he noted were much smaller than red blood cells, occasionally clumped, and were sometimes found in collections of fibrin material.
[84]
- Giulio Bizzozero
in 1882 studied the blood of amphibians microscopically
in vivo
. He named Schultze's spherules (It.)
piastrine
: little plates.
[85]
[86]
Bizzozero possibly proposed the name Blutplattchen.
[87]
- William Osler
observed platelets and, in published lectures in 1886, called them a
third corpuscle
and a blood
plaque
; and described them as "a colorless protoplasmic disc".
[88]
- James Wright
examined blood smears using the stain named for him, and used the term
plates
in his 1906 publication,
[89]
changing to platelets in his 1910 publication.
[90]
See also
[
edit
]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
platelets
.
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[
edit
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