Type of economic system based on planning
A
planned economy
is a type of
economic system
where the distribution of
goods
and services or the
investment
,
production
and the allocation of
capital goods
takes place according to economic plans that are either economy-wide or limited to a category of goods and services. A planned economy may use
centralized
,
decentralized
,
participatory
or
Soviet-type
forms of
economic planning
.
[1]
[2]
The level of
centralization
or
decentralization
in decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.
[3]
Socialist states
based on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the former
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
have adopted some degree of
market socialism
.
Market abolitionist
socialism replaces
factor markets
with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various
socially owned
economic enterprises that make up the economy.
[4]
[5]
[6]
More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.
[7]
Planned economies contrast with
unplanned economies
, specifically
market economies
, where autonomous firms operating in
markets
make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment. Market economies that use
indicative planning
are variously referred to as
planned market economies
,
mixed economies
and
mixed market economies
. A
command economy
follows an
administrative-command system
and uses Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former
Soviet Union
and
Eastern Bloc
before most of these countries converted to market economies. This highlights the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems.
[8]
[9]
[10]
Overview
[
edit
]
In the
Hellenistic
and post-Hellenistic world, "compulsory state planning was the most characteristic trade condition for the
Egyptian
countryside, for
Hellenistic India
, and to a lesser degree the more barbaric regions of the
Seleucid
, the
Pergamenian
, the southern
Arabian
, and the
Parthian
empires".
[11]
Scholars have argued that the
Incan
economy was a flexible type of command economy, centered around the movement and utilization of labor instead of goods.
[12]
One view of
mercantilism
sees it as involving planned economies.
[13]
The Soviet-style planned economy in Soviet Russia evolved in the wake of a continuing existing
World War I
war-economy
as well as other policies, known as
war communism
(1918?1921), shaped to the requirements of the
Russian Civil War
of 1917?1923. These policies began their formal consolidation under an official organ of government in 1921, when the Soviet government founded
Gosplan
. However, the period of the
New Economic Policy
(
c.
1921
to
c.
1928
) intervened before the planned system of regular
five-year plans
started in 1928.
Leon Trotsky
was one of the earliest proponents of economic planning during the
NEP
period.
[14]
[15]
[16]
Trotsky argued that
specialization
, the concentration of
production
and the use of planning could "raise in the near future the
coefficient
of
industrial growth
not only two, but even three times higher than the
pre-war rate
of 6% and, perhaps, even higher".
[17]
According to historian
Sheila Fitzpatrick
, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the
Left Opposition
on such matters as
industrialisation
and
collectivisation
.
[18]
After
World War II
(1939?1945) France and Great Britain practiced
dirigisme
? government direction of the economy through non-coercive means. The Swedish government planned public-housing models in a similar fashion as
urban planning
in a project called
Million Programme
, implemented from 1965 to 1974. Some decentralized participation in economic planning occurred across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the
Spanish Revolution of 1936
.
[19]
[20]
Relationship with socialism
[
edit
]
In the May 1949 issue of the
Monthly Review
titled "
Why Socialism?
",
Albert Einstein
wrote:
[21]
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.
While
socialism
is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve
ex-ante
coordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically so that the use of the
surplus product
is controlled by the producers.
[22]
The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the
socialist calculation debate
.
Computational economic planning
[
edit
]
In 1959
Anatoly Kitov
proposed a distributed computing system (Project "Red Book",
Russian
:
Красная книга
) with a focus on the management of the Soviet economy. Opposition from the
Defence Ministry
killed Kitov's plan.
[23]
In 1971 the socialist
Allende administration
of Chile launched
Project Cybersyn
to install a telex machine in every corporation and organization in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government. The data was also fed into a computer-simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for real-time observation and management of the overall economy. The prototype-stage of the project showed promise when it was used to redirect supplies around a trucker's strike,
[24]
but after CIA-backed
Augusto Pinochet
led a
coup in 1973
that established a
military dictatorship
under his rule the program was abolished and Pinochet moved Chile towards a more
liberalized
market economy
.
In their book
Towards a New Socialism
(1993), the computer scientist
Paul Cockshott
from the
University of Glasgow
and the economist Allin Cottrell from
Wake Forest University
claim to demonstrate how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free-market economies and also morally desirable.
[7]
Cybernetics
[
edit
]
The use of computers to coordinate production in an optimal fashion has been variously proposed for
socialist economies
. The Polish economist
Oskar Lange
(1904?1965) argued that the computer is more efficient than the market process at solving the multitude of simultaneous equations required for allocating economic inputs efficiently (either in terms of physical quantities or monetary prices).
[25]
In the Soviet Union,
Anatoly Kitov
had proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organization of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centers in 1959.
[26]
Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962
OGAS
economy management network project.
[27]
Soviet
cybernetician
,
Viktor Glushkov
argued that his OGAS information network would have delivered a fivefold
savings return
for the
Soviet economy
over the first fifteen-year investment.
[28]
Salvador Allende
's socialist government pioneered the 1970 Chilean distributed
decision support system
Project Cybersyn
in an attempt to move towards a decentralized planned economy with the
experimental viable system model
of computed organisational structure of autonomous operative units through an
algedonic feedback
setting and bottom-up participative decision-making in the form of
participative democracy
by the Cyberfolk component.
[29]
Fictional portrayals
[
edit
]
The 1888 novel
Looking Backward
by
Edward Bellamy
depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia.
The
World State
in
Aldous Huxley
's
Brave New World
(1932) and
Airstrip One
in
George Orwell
's
Nineteen Eighty-Four
(1949) provide fictional depictions of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims. The former is a
consumer economy
designed to engender productivity while the latter is a
shortage economy
designed as an agent of totalitarian social control. Airstrip One is organized by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty.
Other literary portrayals of planned economies include
Yevgeny Zamyatin
's
We
(1924), which influenced Orwell's work. Like
Nineteen Eighty-Four
,
Ayn Rand
's dystopian 1938 story
Anthem
offered an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced by
We
. The difference is that it was a
primitivist
planned economy as opposed to the advanced technology of
We
or
Brave New World
.
Central planning
[
edit
]
Advantages
[
edit
]
The government can harness
land
,
labor
, and
capital
to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations have compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy. However, according to
Michael Ellman
, the reality of this, at least regarding infant mortality, varies depending on whether official Soviet or
WHO
definitions are used.
[30]
The state can begin building massive heavy industries at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of
gross national income
dedicated to private consumption down from 80% to 50%. As a result of this development, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector due to the labor shortage.
[31]
Disadvantages
[
edit
]
Economic instability
[
edit
]
Studies of command economies of the
Eastern Bloc
in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that contrary to the expectations of both groups they showed greater fluctuations in
output
than market economies during the same period.
[32]
Inefficient resource distribution
[
edit
]
Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a
market economy
, a
free price system
is intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economists
Ludwig von Mises
and
Friedrich Hayek
, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the
economic calculation problem
and
local knowledge problem
, respectively.
[33]
[34]
These distinct aspects were also present in the economic thought of
Michael Polanyi
.
[35]
Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy to
subjective value theory
while attacking the
labor theory of value
, the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized as
spontaneous order
. Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According to
Tibor Machan
, "[w]ithout a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals".
[36]
Historian
Robert Vincent Daniels
regarded the
Stalinist
period to represent an abrupt break with Lenin's government in terms of economic planning in which an deliberated,
scientific system
of planning that featured former
Menshevik
economists
at
Gosplan
had been replaced with a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucratic waste,
bottlenecks
and
shortages
. Stalin's formulations of national plans in terms of physical quantity of output was also attributed by Daniels as a source for the stagnant levels of efficiency and quality.
[37]
Suppression of economic democracy and self-management
[
edit
]
Economist
Robin Hahnel
, who supports
participatory economics
, a form of
socialist
decentralized planned economy, notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.
[38]
Furthermore, Hahnel states:
Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential
economic power
grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power.
[38]
Command economy
[
edit
]
Planned economies contrast with command economies in that a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc."
[39]
whereas a command economy necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry while also having this type of regulation.
[40]
In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.
[41]
This is contested by some
Marxists
.
[5]
[42]
Decentralized planning has been proposed as a basis for
socialism
and has been variously advocated by
anarchists
,
council communists
,
libertarian Marxists
and other
democratic
and
libertarian
socialists who advocate a non-market form of socialism, in total rejection of the type of planning adopted in the
economy of the Soviet Union
.
[43]
Most of a command economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the
chain of command
, with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies.
Leon Trotsky
believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and who understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy. Therefore, they would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.
[44]
Historians have associated planned economies with
Marxist?Leninist states
and the
Soviet economic model
. Since the 1980s, it has been contested that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment.
[45]
The further distinction of an
administrative-command system
emerged as a new designation in some academic circles for the economic system that existed in the former
Soviet Union
and
Eastern Bloc
, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy.
[46]
The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored in Chile between 1971 and 1973 with the development of
Project Cybersyn
and by
Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich
, head of the Department of Technical Physics in Kiev in 1962.
[47]
[48]
While both economic planning and a planned economy can be either authoritarian or
democratic
and
participatory
,
democratic socialist
critics argue that command economies are necessarily authoritarian or undemocratic in practice.
[49]
[50]
Indicative planning
is a form of economic planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. In some predominantly market-oriented and Western mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employ
macroeconomic
planning while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system.
Decentralized planning
[
edit
]
A decentralized-planned economy, occasionally called horizontally planned economy due to its
horizontalism
, is a type of planned economy in which the
investment
and
allocation
of
consumer
and
capital goods
is explicated accordingly to an economy-wide plan built and operatively coordinated through a distributed network of disparate economic agents or even production units itself. Decentralized planning is usually held in contrast to centralized planning, in particular the
Soviet-type economic planning
of the
Soviet Union
's command economy, where economic information is aggregated and used to formulate a plan for production, investment and resource allocation by a single central authority. Decentralized planning can take shape both in the context of a
mixed economy
as well as in a
post-capitalist
economic system. This form of economic planning implies some process of democratic and participatory decision-making within the economy and within firms itself in the form of
industrial democracy
. Computer-based forms of democratic economic planning and coordination between economic enterprises have also been proposed by various
computer scientists
and
radical economists
.
[25]
[7]
[24]
Proponents present decentralized and participatory economic planning as an alternative to
market socialism
for a post-capitalist society.
[52]
Decentralized planning has been a feature of
anarchist
and
socialist economics
. Variations of decentralized planning such as
economic democracy
, industrial democracy and
participatory economics
have been promoted by various political groups, most notably
anarchists
,
democratic socialists
,
guild socialists
,
libertarian Marxists
,
libertarian socialists
,
revolutionary syndicalists
and
Trotskyists
.
[44]
During the
Spanish Revolution
, some areas where anarchist and libertarian socialist influence through the
CNT
and
UGT
was extensive, particularly rural regions, were run on the basis of decentralized planning resembling the principles laid out by
anarcho-syndicalist
Diego Abad de Santillan
in the book
After the Revolution
.
[53]
Trotsky had urged economic
decentralisation
between the state,
oblast
regions and factories during the
NEP
period to counter structural inefficiency and the problem of bureaucracy.
[54]
Models
[
edit
]
Negotiated coordination
[
edit
]
Economist
Pat Devine
has created a model of decentralized economic planning called "negotiated coordination" which is based upon
social ownership
of the
means of production
by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with the
allocation
of
consumer
and
capital goods
made through a participatory form of decision-making by those at the most localized level of production.
[55]
Moreover, organizations that utilize
modularity
in their production processes may distribute problem solving and decision making.
[56]
Participatory planning
[
edit
]
The planning structure of a decentralized planned economy is generally based on a consumers council and producer council (or jointly, a distributive cooperative) which is sometimes called a
consumers' cooperative
. Producers and consumers, or their representatives, negotiate the quality and quantity of what is to be produced. This structure is central to
guild socialism
,
participatory economics
and the economic theories related to
anarchism
.
Practice
[
edit
]
Kerala
[
edit
]
Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented in various regions and states in
India
, most notably in
Kerala
. Local level planning agencies assess the needs of people who are able to give their direct input through the Gram Sabhas (village-based institutions) and the planners subsequently seek to plan accordingly.
[57]
Revolutionary Catalonia
[
edit
]
Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the
Spanish Revolution of 1936
.
[19]
[20]
Similar concepts in practice
[
edit
]
The
United Nations
has developed local projects that promote participatory planning on a community level. Members of communities make decisions regarding
community development
directly.
[
citation needed
]
See also
[
edit
]
- Case studies (Soviet-type economies)
- Case studies (mixed-market economies)
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Alec Nove
(1987). "Planned Economy".
The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics
. vol. 3. p. 879.
- ^
Devine, Pat (2010).
Democracy and Economic Planning
. Polity.
ISBN
978-0745634791
.
- ^
Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003).
Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century
. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 23?24.
ISBN
978-0-618-26181-9
.
- ^
Prychito, David L. (2002).
Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism
. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 72.
ISBN
978-1840645194
.
Traditional socialism strives to plan all economic activities comprehensively, both within and between enterprises. As such, it seeks to integrate the economic activities of society (the coordination of socially owned property) into a single coherent plan, rather than to rely upon the spontaneous or anarchic ordering of the market system to coordinate plans.
- ^
a
b
Mandel, Ernest (1986).
"In Defence of Socialist Planning"
(PDF)
.
New Left Review
.
159
: 5?37.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2008-05-16.
Planning is not equivalent to 'perfect' allocation of resources, nor 'scientific' allocation, nor even 'more humane' allocation. It simply means 'direct' allocation,
ex ante
. As such, it is the opposite of market allocation, which is
ex post
.
- ^
Ellman, Michael (1989).
Socialist Planning
. Cambridge University Press. p. 327.
ISBN
978-0521358668
.
'[S]ocialist planning', in the original sense of a national economy which replaced market relationships by direct calculation and direct product exchange, has nowhere been established [...].
- ^
a
b
c
Cottrell, Allin; Cockshott, W. Paul (1993).
Towards a New Socialism
Archived
2018-06-27 at the
Wayback Machine
. (Nottingham, England: Spokesman. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
- ^
Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart (1988).
Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach
. Harcourt College Pub. p.
4
.
ISBN
978-0-15-512403-5
.
Almost all industry in the Soviet Union is government owned and all production is directed, in theory, by a central plan (though in practice much is left for local discretion and much happens that is unplanned or not under government control).
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy".
Soviet Studies
.
37
(1): 118?130.
doi
:
10.1080/09668138508411571
.
- ^
Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvali?, Milica (eds.).
Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti
. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22.
ISBN
978-0-230-54697-4
.
In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population [...].
- ^
Heichelheim, Friedrich Moritz
(1949).
"Commerce, Greek and Roman"
. In
Hammond, Nicholas G. L.
;
Scullard, H. H.
(eds.).
The Oxford Classical Dictionary
(2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 1970). p.
274
.
ISBN
0198691173
.
- ^
La Lone, Darrell E. (1982).
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.
Contexts for Prehistoric Exchange
: 292.
Archived
from the original on 19 October 2020
. Retrieved
17 December
2018
.
- ^
Blaug, Mark
, ed. (1991).
The Early mercantilists: Thomas Mun (1571?1641), Edward Misselden (1608?1634), Gerard de Malynes (1586?1623)
. Pioneers in economics. E. Elgar Pub. Co. p. 136.
ISBN
978-1852784669
. Retrieved
7 September
2018
.
To this approach belongs at least in part an attempt to view mercantilism as
economic dirigee
, a planned economy with national economic objectives ? 'wealth', 'plenty' or simply 'welfare' within the framework of the nation and at the expense of other nations.
- ^
a
b
Twiss, Thomas M. (2014).
Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy
. Brill. pp. 88?113.
ISBN
978-90-04-26953-8
.
Archived
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. Retrieved
2023-10-27
.
- ^
Day, Richard B. (1973).
Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation
. Cambridge University Press. p. 109.
ISBN
978-0-521-52436-0
.
Archived
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. Retrieved
2023-10-27
.
- ^
Deutscher, Isaac (1965).
The prophet unarmed: Trotsky, 1921?1929
. New York, Vintage Books. p. 468.
ISBN
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.
- ^
Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021).
Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years
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ISBN
978-1-893638-97-6
.
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.
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ISSN
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.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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a
b
Wetzel, Tom.
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Archived
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ISBN
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.
- ^
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Archived
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,
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.
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. Cambridge University Press. p. 174.
ISBN
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.
We have presented the view that planning and market mechanisms are instruments that can be used both in socialist and non-socialist societies. [...] It was important to explode the primitive identification of central planning and socialism and to stress the instrumental character of planning.
- ^
Kitov, Vladimir A.; Shilov, Valery V.; Silantiev, Sergey A. (5 October 2016). "Trente ans ou la Vie d'un scientifique". In Gadducci, Fabio; Tavosanis, Mirko (eds.).
History and Philosophy of Computing: Third International Conference, HaPoC 2015, Pisa, Italy, October 8?11, 2015, Revised Selected Papers
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.
ISSN
1868-4238
. Retrieved
12 September
2021
.
[...] "Measures to overcome the shortcomings in the development, production and introduction of computers in the Armed Forces and national economy". Today this project is known among the specialists as the 'Red Book' project. It was the first project in the USSR, which proposed to combine all the computers in the country into a unified network of compter centers. In peacetime this network must have fulfilled both national economic and defense tasks [...].
- ^
a
b
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.
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.
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a
b
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. Calculemus.org.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
Kitova, O.
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.
computer-museum.ru
. Translated by Alexander Nitusov.
Archived
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. Retrieved
2021-10-11
.
- ^
Peters, Benjamin (25 March 2016).
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. MIT Press.
ISBN
978-0262034180
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For the USSR, the official Soviet statistics of infant mortality give too favourable a picture. There are two reasons for this. First, the USSR used a definition of 'birth' different from the WHO one (Chapter 8, pp. 321?322). The percentage increase in the infant mortality rate caused by switching from the Soviet definition to the WHO one seems to have ranged from 13 per cent in Moldova to 40 per cent in Latvia. In Poland, which has a much larger population than the two previously mentioned countries, it was about 21 per cent. Secondly, there seems to have been significant under-registration of deaths, particularly in certain regions, such as Central Asia and Azerbaijan. Estimates of 'true' infant mortality in 1987?2000 show very high increases over the official figures in Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Albania, Romania, and Bulgaria. In Russia ? which was supposed to have adopted the WHO definition of 'birth' by 1993 and where under-registration is much less than in Central Asia or Azerbaijan ? in 1987?2000 the estimated increase of the official figures to measure 'true' infant mortality is 26.5 percent.
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Kaplan, Robert ? see reference to his work on International Economics and Foreign Relations, where he addresses nature of "command economy", a Weberian term.
- Cox, Robin (2005).
"The Economic Calculation Controversy: Unravelling of a Myth"
.
Common Voice
(3).
- Damier, Vadim (2012).
"The Economy of Freedom"
.
- Devine, Pat (2010).
Democracy and Economic Planning
. Polity.
ISBN
978-0745634791
.
- Ellman, Michael
(2014).
Socialist Planning
(3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press
.
ISBN
1107427320
.
- Grossman, Gregory (1987): "Command economy".
The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics
.
1
. pp. 494?495.
- Landauer, Carl (1947).
Theory of National Economic Planning
(2nd ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.
- Mandel, Ernest (1986).
In Defence of Socialist Planning
.
New Left Review
(159).
- Myant, Martin; Drahokoupil, Jan (2010),
Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia
, Wiley-Blackwell,
ISBN
978-0-470-59619-7
.
- Nove, Alec
(1987). "Planned economy".
The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics
.
3
. pp. 879?885.
External links
[
edit
]