Latin fabulist and probably a Thracian slave
Gaius Julius Phaedrus
(
;
Greek
:
Φα?δρο?
; Phaidros), or
Phaeder
(c. 15 BC?c. 50 AD) was a 1st-century AD
Roman
fabulist
and the first versifier of a collection of
Aesop's fables
into Latin. Nothing is recorded of his life except for what can be inferred from his poems, and there was little mention of his work during
late antiquity
. It was not until the discovery of a few imperfect manuscripts during and following the
Renaissance
that his importance emerged, both as an author and in the transmission of the fables.
Biography
[
edit
]
The poet describes himself as born in the
Pierian Mountains
,
[1]
perhaps in
Pydna
, and names the
Thracian
musicians
Linus
and
Orpheus
as his countrymen.
[2]
The inscriptions and subscriptions in the manuscript tradition identify him as a
freedman
of
Augustus
.
[3]
[4]
Some have inferred from these data that Phaedrus was brought to Rome in his childhood as a slave following the Thracian campaign of
L. Calpurnius Piso
.
[5]
Whether in Rome or elsewhere, Phaedrus studied Latin literature in his youth, as he quotes a line from
Ennius
saying that he read it when he was a boy.
[6]
When he had published his first two books of fables, he was subjected to a trial in which he says
Sejanus
was accuser, witness, and judge.
[7]
Although it is not clear what punishment the poet suffered, the poet pleads with a certain Eutychus to intercede on his behalf in the prologue to his third book. In the epilogue of the third book, the poet describes himself as in advanced middle age,
[8]
and the final poem of Phaedrus' fifth book implies that he had reached old age.
[9]
There is no external evidence by which to judge whether the poet spoke truthfully of himself, and scholars have assigned different degrees of significance to the biographical hints contained in the poems.
[10]
Attilio de Lorenzi's biography
Fedro
is reviewed by Perry as a "consistent and convincing all-round picture of the man" with "nothing unreasonable or improbable in any of the author's conclusions,"
[11]
but derided by another reviewer as "a romance" born of "de Lorenzi's ingenious imagination" which is "entertaining to read, but not always easy to believe."
[12]
Franz de Ruyt
[
fr
]
likewise disparages elements of de Lorenzi's reconstruction as tenuously supported and "novelistic," and declares
Fedro
an original and useful work on the whole, but one which must be used with caution for biographical facts.
[13]
Edward Champlin
, while acknowledging that the traditional account of Phaedrus' life is "handed down through the scholarly literature," derides even the broad outlines of it that are most commonly accepted as "complete fantasy" and argues that what Phaedrus had to say about himself might as plausibly be reinterpreted to prove that he was born in Rome and spent the whole of his life there as a free citizen.
[14]
On the basis of "an astonishingly sophisticated interest in Roman law" seen in the poems, however, Champlin asserts that "Phaedrus was a lawyer."
[15]
Leon Herrmann
[
fr
]
purported to find new biographical information in the fables in the form of
acrostics
, many of which could not be found in the text without novel editorial interventions. Herrmann also attributed the
Apocolocyntosis
,
the
Distichs of Cato
,
and most of the
Culex
to Phaedrus and sifted these texts for further biographical clues. The second part of Herrmann's book was an edition of the fables (in a novel order and divided into four books) and the other works he ascribed to Phaedrus.
[16]
C. J. Fordyce described Herrmann's book simply as "full of surprises", of which the greatest was that Herrmann was "an editor of Phaedrus, and a professor of Latin, to whom
quantity
appears to mean nothing at all and who by his own conjectures turns metrical lines into unmetrical on every other page."
[17]
Frank Goodyear
mocked a later editor for citing Herrmann, referring to him sarcastically as "that noted metrician".
[18]
Alfred Ernout
remarked that while he would leave Herrmann's biographical theories to be discussed by historians of literature, he could only regret the abundance of errors of every kind to be found in Herrmann's edition.
[19]
Name
[
edit
]
Phaedrus' name appears in his own text
[20]
and in Martial
[21]
in the
genitive case
as
Phaedri.
It is found in the nominative case, as
Phaedrus,
in Avianus' letter to Theodosius, and in the titles of three of the fables,
[22]
possibly added by scribes on the authority of Avianus. Some critics have argued the poet's name would more correctly be written
Phaeder
in the nominative, by analogy to Latin names like
Alexander
,
Menander
,
and
Anaximander
which reflect Greek originals that end in -δρο?, supported by evidence from ancient inscriptions of the use of the form
Phaeder.
[23]
[24]
[25]
Roman slaves were known by a single name, in contrast with the
tria nomina
borne by citizens. Manumitted slaves in the early empire usually took the
praenomen
and
nomen
of their former master, keeping their slave name as a
cognomen
.
[26]
Some sources therefore give the poet's full name as Gaius Julius Phaedrus (or Phaeder), with the praenomen and nomen of Augustus.
[27]
[28]
Dates
[
edit
]
Because Sejanus died in AD 31, Phaedrus' statement that his poems had offended Sejanus is usually taken to establish that the first two books were written before that date. That the first two books were published (whether together or separately) in the reign of
Tiberius
is supported by II.5.7, where Tiberius appears to be referred to as alive.
[27]
[29]
Most scholars infer from the hostile manner in which Phaedrus writes of Sejanus, as if he had nothing further to fear from him, that the third book was written after Sejanus' death, but not long after, since Phaedrus was still suffering the effects of persecution by Sejanus.
[29]
[30]
Phaedrus' statement in the third book that he was in advanced middle age would therefore support an approximate birth date of 15 BC
[28]
[27]
or 18 BC.
[30]
Based on the poet's insinuation in the fifth book that he was worn out by old age like the dog in the fable, scholars conclude that he died an old man in the reign of
Claudius
(41?54) or
Nero
(54?68);
[30]
Giuseppe Zago believes Phaedrus to have revised his first book after having read
Seneca the Younger
's
Moral Epistles
and books
De beneficiis,
in which case Phaedrus died in the reign of Nero or
Vespasian
(69?79).
[31]
Textual sources
[
edit
]
The following sources are of significance for establishing the text of Phaedrus:
- Codex Pithoeanus
(New York,
Pierpont Morgan Library
, M. 906, ff. 33?87), so called because of its previous ownership by
Pierre Pithou
who used it to edit the
editio princeps
,
was copied by several hands in the late 9th Century and contains 94 fables of Phaedrus divided into four books, bound together with the
Liber Monstrorum
.
It was rebound in the 16th Century, now with a copy of Phaedrus on paper in Pithou's hand in the front. It was inherited by Pithou's great-grandson,
Claude Le Peletier
[
fr
]
, whose family was granted the title of Marquis of Rosanbo by
Louis XIV
, and so has also been known as the Rosanbo manuscript. A paleographic edition was published in 1893 with the permission of the Marquis of Rosanbo,
[32]
but the family afterwards denied scholars access to the manuscript, prompting Perry to remark that the codex was in "very private possession"
[33]
and Postgate to compare the present owner to the dragon from one of Phaedrus' fables.
[34]
It became more accessible after the Pierpont Morgan Library purchased it in 1961.
[35]
[36]
- Codex Remensis, formerly held at the
Abbey of Saint-Remi
, was copied ca. 830?850 and destroyed in a fire on January 16, 1774. The readings of this lost witness must be determined by the reports of printed editions and manuscript collations or tracings made by those who were able to have direct knowledge of the manuscript. It contained the same poems as the Codex Pithoeanus in the same order, bound together with the
Querolus
.
- Codex Reginensis Latinus 1616
, preserved in the
Vatican Library
, contains the inscription of the first book immediately followed by eight fables from it (11?13 and 17?21) copied in the mid-9th Century at ff. 17r?18r. Despite the fragment's brevity,
E. K. Rand
declares it the best source for the fables which it contains.
[37]
[38]
This fragment is also called the "vetus Danielis chartula" or "scheda Danielis" because of its previous ownership by
Pierre Daniel
[
fr
]
, who acquired many of the books of
Fleury Abbey
after the monastery was plundered by Huguenots in 1562.
[39]
Daniel's books were sold after his death to
Jacques Bongars
and
Paul Petau
, and Petau's share was largely acquired in 1650 by
Isaac Vossius
as the agent of
Christina, Queen of Sweden
, who took her library to Rome after abdicating the throne. Her books passed into the Vatican Library, and in her honor are catalogued as the
reginenses,
or "queenly" books.
[40]
- Codex Neapolitanus or Perottinus (Naples,
Biblioteca Nazionale
, IV F 58) is the sole independent witness of an
Epitome fabellarum Aesopi Auieni et Phaedri
composed by
Niccolo Perotti
, consisting of poems composed by Phaedrus, Avianus, and Perotti himself, in Perotti's hand and seemingly written after 1474. The waterlogged manuscript was discovered in the library of the
Duke of Parma
in early 1727 by
Jacques Philippe d'Orville
[
fr
]
. About a decade after d'Orville's discovery, the codex was transferred from Parma to Naples following
Charles III of Spain
's inheritance of the Farneses' books and conquest of the Kingdom of Naples.
[41]
The manuscript contains 66 poems by Phaedrus, or rather 63, as Perotti copied one fable twice, and two fables are each divided into two. 30 of these 63 poems were not in the Pithoeanus or Remensis. This manuscript's condition has so deteriorated over time due to water damage that in many places it can no longer be read, and recourse must be had to older copies and collations to determine its readings. Nearly all the
lacunae
can be filled by reference to two codices in the Vatican Library.
[42]
- Codex Urbinas Latinus 368
, ff. 100?146, containing the entire
Epitome,
was made from the Neapolitanus around 1482 by
Federico Veterano
. The manuscript was brought to light by
Angelo Mai
around 1830.
[43]
[44]
- Codex Urbinas Latinus 301
, the sole witness of a work by Perotti titled
Cornucopiae,
includes two fables of Phaedrus (III.17 at f. 644r and app. 4 at f. 126r?v).
- The so-called
schedae d'Orvillianae
(Oxford,
Bodleian Library
, MS. d'Orville 524) are a copy of the Neapolitanus made by d'Orville in 1727.
[36]
D'Orville's manuscripts were sold by his grandson to J. Cleaver Banks, who sold them to the Bodleian Library in 1804.
[45]
- Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5190
, ff. 111r?125r, contains 22 fables of Phaedrus copied by two hands in the late 15th Century mixed with fables of Avianus, including 8 poems otherwise known only through the Neapolitanus, although it is evidently independent of Perotti.
Prose paraphrases
[
edit
]
Several medieval fable collections made extensive use of Phaedrus "in solution," i.e., with the metrical verses adapted into prose. The following collections contain 54 fables that are preserved in the direct tradition, 28 that have been lost from it, and 16 from non-Phaedrian sources.
[46]
Each of them is printed in
Hervieux 1894
, and the fables they contain which have no equivalent in the extant metrical text of Phaedrus are translated or summarized in
Perry 1965
.
Number and division of the fables
[
edit
]
The five books
[
edit
]
Avianus writes about AD 400 that Phaedrus wrote five books of fables. The 94 fables contained in the Pithoeanus are divided into four books, but the text in the Remensis ended with the subscription "PHAEDRI AVG(VSTI) LIBERTI LIBER QVINTVS EXPLICIT FELICITER" ("this is the end of the fifth book of Phaedrus, freedman of Augustus"), indicating that in the manuscript from which the Pithoeanus and Remensis were copied, the poems were divided into five books.
[51]
The remains of Phaedrus' five books transmitted in the Pithoeanus and Remensis are of unequal length and seem to indicate that material has been lost. This is supported by the apology in the prologue to the first book for including talking trees, of which there are no examples in the text that survives although there was one in the Perotti appendix. In fact, only 59 out of 94 in the Pithou manuscript were even animal fables.
Appendix Perottina
[
edit
]
The 30 poems which were discovered in Codex Neapolitanus are known as the Appendix Perottina. Perotti, evidently unaware of the unique value of the manuscript from which he copied, excerpted fables in an arbitrary order. Some scholars have attempted to restore these fables to their places within the five books with divergent conclusions,
[52]
but usually they are printed separately in the order in which they are found in Perotti's
Epitome.
Perotti omitted the epimythia and promythia, sometimes transferring their wording into titles of his own stating the moral, which he added to all the fables.
[53]
Fabulae novae
[
edit
]
Joan Frederik Nilant
[
nl
]
edited the Phaedrian fables transmitted in solution in 1709.
[54]
A number of editors have undertaken to restore their original metrical form, and these reconstructions are conventionally referred to as the
fabulae novae,
or "new fables." The first attempt was made by
Pieter Burman the Elder
in an appendix to his edition of 1718, which he omitted from his edition of 1727;
J. Wight Duff
says the omission was wise, as Burman made excessive and arbitrary changes in the words, and unavoidably violated some of Phaedrus' metrical principles, which were poorly understood in the 18th Century.
[55]
Jacobus Johannes Hartman
[
nl
]
declares that there neither is nor can be a Latin sentence that cannot be made into a Phaedrian senarius by a slight adjustment, parodically "restoring" sentences from
The Gallic War
and Justinian's
Digest
to a metrical form.
[56]
Postgate defends the procedure of "exhuming" Phaedrus' poems from the prose collections by versification, though conceding that "in these reconstitutions ... we tread on treacherous ground" and "in some cases the metrical form cannot now be restored with completeness or with certainty."
[57]
Postgate edited only ten
fabulae novae
in his edition, saying that previous editors, believing it to be their duty to Phaedrus to restore everything that was his, had not taken due account of the limits of what can be accomplished.
[58]
In 1921,
Carl Magnus Zander
[
sv
]
published 30
fabulae novae.
[59]
[60]
Duff praised Zander's reconstruction as more valuable than his predecessors' efforts due to his "strict parsimony in alterations" and the clear information provided about the prose basis of the reconstruction and what words were supplied by the editor.
[55]
[61]
Work
[
edit
]
A collection of Aesopic fables compiled by
Demetrius of Phalerum
is likely to have been Phaedrus' main source.
[28]
Phaedrus himself says in the prologue to Book 1 that "Aesop" is his source, and it is likely Demetrius' book that he regarded as the canonical Aesop, as distinguished from fables drawn from other sources or invented by himself which he calls "Aesopic in kind but not Aesop's."
[62]
[63]
Demetrius' collection was a handbook of material that writers and speakers could adapt to make a point in the context of a work of another genre.
[64]
[65]
Phaedrus created a new form of polite literature by elevating the fable to an independent genre, to be read as literature in its own right and not as an adjunct to another kind of work.
[66]
[67]
[28]
Aesopic fable had traditionally been written in prose; before Phaedrus, some versified fables had been incorporated into works of other genres, but he is the first author in Latin or Greek to publish entire books of versified fables.
[68]
[69]
Phaedrus' verse is in
iambic
senarii
and is very regular.
[28]
The author's aim at the start was to follow Aesop in creating a work that "moves one to mirth and warns with wise advice".
[70]
As the work progressed, however, he widened his focus and now claimed to be "refining" Aesopic material and even adding to it. In later books we find tales of Roman events well after the time of Aesop such as "Tiberius and the slave" (II.5) and "Augustus and the accused wife" (III.9), as well as the poet's personal reply to envious detractors (IV.21); there are also anecdotes in which Aesop figures from the later biographical tradition (II.3; III.3; IV.5; app. 9; app. 20). Finally he makes a distinction between matter and manner in the epilogue to the fifth book, commenting that
- I write in Esop’s style, not in his name,
- And for the most part I the subject claim.
- Tho' some brief portion Esop might indite,
- The more I from my own invention write,
- The style is ancient but the matter’s new.
[71]
He also claims a place in the Latin literary tradition by echoing well-known and respected writers. It is to be noticed, however, that where Phaedrus and the slightly earlier poet
Horace
adapted the same fable to satirical themes, they often used different versions of it. In Horace a crow (
cornicula
) is the subject of
The Bird in Borrowed Feathers
; in Phaedrus it is a jackdaw (
graculus
). In the case of
The Horse that Lost its Liberty
, Phaedrus has it disputing with a boar and Horace with a stag. Neither do they agree in their account of
The Frog and the Ox
. Horace follows the story found in Greek sources; the frog's motivation is different in Phaedrus, and it is his version that Martial follows later.
[72]
Moreover, in following the model of Aesop, the enfranchised slave, Phaedrus' satire is sharper and restores "the ancient function of the fable as a popular expression against the dominant classes".
[73]
Another commentator points out that "the Aesopian fable has been a political creature from its earliest origins, and Phaedrus, (who was
La Fontaine
's model), though more openly subversive, has claims to be the first proletarian satiric poet".
[74]
Testimonia and ancient reception
[
edit
]
Seneca and Cassius Longinus
[
edit
]
Seneca the Younger
, writing about AD 43, recommended in a letter to Claudius' freedman
Polybius
that he turn his hand to Latinizing Aesop, 'a task hitherto not attempted by Roman genius' (
Ad Polybium
8.3). This may indicate that Seneca had not heard of Phaedrus' works, that Seneca deliberately ignored Phaedrus' works or did not consider them works of "Roman genius," or that Phaedrus' works did not yet exist and the traditional dating of his first three books in the reign of Tiberius is mistaken. However, it is highly likely that Seneca knew the works of Phaedrus.
[75]
[76]
Ulpian
records that
Cassius Longinus
, who died not long after AD 70, was accustomed to use the term "a leonine partnership" for a partnership where one partner takes all of the profits and the other partners run all of the risk,
[77]
indicating that Cassius was familiar with a fable invented by Phaedrus about the lion taking all the profits of his partnership with the other animals (I.5).
[78]
Martial
[
edit
]
By the mid-80s,
Martial
was imitating Phaedrus and mentions his mischievous humour (
improbi jocos Phaedri,
"the jests of naughty Phaedrus").
[21]
Whether Martial referred to the author of fables or to another man of the same name has been disputed. Interpreting the adjective
improbi
as modifying
jocos,
Johann Friedrich Fischer
[
de
]
argued that Phaedrus' fables cannot rightly be called
joci
because they are not apt to provoke laughter, nor are they
improbi
(interpreted in the sense that they required hard work to accomplish) because Phaedrus wrote light verse about common, everyday things. Fischer believed the verse referred to
Phaedrus the Epicurean
.
[79]
Others have proposed that Martial's Phaedrus is an otherwise unknown author of
mimes
.
[80]
Ludwig Friedlander
argues that Martial often uses
improbus
as a synonym of
lascivus,
or "bawdy," and Phaedrus' fables do not answer to this description, but Martial does associate the word
improbus
with mimes.
[81]
Frederic Plessis
accepts Friedlander's reasoning.
[82]
Johann Friedrich Gronovius
interpreted the word
improbus
to mean "bold" or "impudent," and considered it sufficiently explained by the fact that Phaedrus had represented animals and trees as speaking in his fables, and by the fact that through his fables, he had lampooned the behavior of the mighty of his age.
[83]
Leopold Hervieux considered Gronovius to have demonstrated beyond any doubt that Martial referred to the fabulist.
[84]
Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel
rejects Friedlander's hypothesis as lacking probability.
[85]
Robinson Ellis
identifies several fables as containing indecent content that can explain the designation
improbus,
and notes that more may have been contained in lost writings of Phaedrus.
[86]
Whether this line by Martial originally referred to
jocos
is also disputed. The best manuscripts read
locos
or
locus.
Later manuscripts read
jocos,
which has been adopted by editors, but may be no more than an emendation by an Italian humanist.
[87]
Following a suggestion originally made by
Georg Thiele
[
de
]
, several editors since 1925 have emended this word to the Greek word λ?γου?,
[88]
[89]
[90]
used in Latin as a loanword signifying "fables."
[91]
[92]
A. E. Housman
grants that both
improbi
and
jocos
have such associations that this combination of words could be taken to suggest lascivious poems, and that there are no poems extant in Phaedrus' corpus which would merit this description, but argues that besides the fact that Phaedrus himself calls his fables
joci,
Housman argues that
improbus
need mean nothing more than that Phaedrus was "disrespectful," which "may allude to those hits at the high and mighty which are supposed to have provoked the displeasure of Sejanus", and emending to λ?γου? "leaves
improbi
freer to mean what it ought."
[93]
Subsequent authors
[
edit
]
Quintilian
does not mention Phaedrus by name, but recommends as a school exercise that students compose prose versions of versified fables of Aesop,
[94]
a genre originated by Phaedrus. This passage is interpreted by
J. P. Postgate
to praise a particular poet (taken by Postgate to be Phaedrus) who had told Aesop's fables in a "pure style."
[75]
This is disputed, however, by F. H. Colson, who takes the
sermo purus
in this passage to refer to a style to be demanded of students in their own compositions.
[95]
The next literary reference is a homage by Phaedrus' fellow fabulist
Avianus
near the start of the 5th century, who claims the five books of fables as one of his sources in the dedication of his own work.
[96]
The author of
Octavia
,
Tertullian
,
Nemesianus
,
Ausonius
, St.
Paulinus of Nola
,
Prudentius
, the author of the
Alcestis Barcinonensis
, and the author of the
Querolus
also appear to have read and imitated Phaedrus, but no author from antiquity mentions him by name other than Martial and Avianus.
[97]
Whether
Juvenal
read Phaedrus is uncertain.
[98]
Istvan Szamoskozy
discovered the verse
nisi utile est quod facimus, stulta est gloria
inscribed on a tomb in
Alba Iulia
, and published it in 1593.
[99]
This was later identified as a line from Phaedrus.
[100]
According to
Johannes Troster
[
de
]
, this inscription still existed in 1666.
[101]
[102]
Theodor Mommsen
does not consider the inscription genuine.
[103]
[104]
Modern reception
[
edit
]
Francois Pithou
discovered Codex Pithoeanus in 1596, at which time Phaedrus' work had fallen into complete oblivion, and sent the manuscript to his brother
Pierre Pithou
, who used it to publish the
editio princeps
.
[105]
[106]
[107]
Pithou left no record of where this manuscript was found except for a note at the end of his edition that said, "vet. ex. Cat."
[108]
Johann Caspar von Orelli
plausibly took this to be an abbreviation of
vetus exemplar Catalaunense
("an ancient copy from
Chalons-en-Champagne
") or
Catuacense
("from
Douai
").
[109]
[110]
Nicolas Rigault
brought out an edition in 1599 based on both the Pithoeanus and the scheda Danielis, and a new edition in 1617 (with minor corrections in 1630) taking into account the evidence of the Remensis.
[111]
Codex Neapolitanus was discovered at
Parma
by
Jacques Philippe d'Orville
[
fr
]
in 1727. D'Orville informed his professor
Pieter Burman the Elder
of the find, but Burman did not attempt to edit the previously unknown poems because the manuscript was illegible in many places.
[112]
The Neapolitanus was rediscovered in Naples in 1808 by
Juan Andres
, S.J.
[113]
Giovanni Antonio Cassitto
[
it
]
hastily brought out an edition of it from a copy made in the library by his brother, while Andres, unaware of Cassitto's work, commissioned
Cataldo Jannelli
[
it
]
to produce an edition; Jannelli's edition was in the hands of the printers when Cassitto's edition unexpectedly appeared. A bitter scholarly controversy ensued as Jannelli strove to vindicate the superiority of his edition. Cassitto's first edition was printed in only fifty copies, and is of no value except as a bibliographical curiosity.
[114]
[115]
Both editions lost much of their interest when
Angelo Mai
published a much better preserved copy of Perotti's
Epitome
in 1831.
[116]
The fables of Phaedrus soon began to be published as school editions, both in the original Latin and in prose translation.
[117]
[118]
Since the 18th century there have also been four complete translations into English verse. The first was by
Christopher Smart
into
octosyllabic
couplets (London 1753).
[119]
Brooke Boothby
's "The Esopean Fables of Phedrus" were included in his
Fables and Satires
(Edinburgh, 1809)
[120]
and also used octosyllables but in a more condensed manner:
- What Esop taught his beasts in Greek,
- Phedrus in Latin made them speak:
- In English, I from him translate,
- And his brief manner imitate.
[121]
It was followed by the Reverend
Frederick Toller
's
A poetical version of the fables of Phædrus
in 1854.
[122]
These were translated more diffusely into irregular verses of five
metrical feet
and each fable was followed by a prose commentary. P. F. Widdows' translation also includes the fables in the Perotti appendix and all are rendered into a free version of Anglo-Saxon
alliterative verse
.
[123]
Phaedrus versions were translated individually by a variety of other poets into different languages. A small selection in various poetic forms appeared in the
Poems & Translations
(London 1769) of Ashley Cowper (1701?88).
[124]
There were many more poems distinctively styled in
La Fontaine's Fables
; others followed by
Ivan Krylov
in Russian;
Gregory Skovoroda
and
Leonid Hlibov
in Ukrainian; and a more complete collection by Volodymyr Lytvynov in 1986.
[125]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
III prol. 17
- ^
III prol. 56 sqq.
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. lxxiii
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. viii
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. lxxxi
- ^
III epil. 33 sqq.
- ^
III prol. 38 sqq.
- ^
III epil. 15
- ^
V.30 (
Zago 2020
); otherwise numbered V.10 (
Muller 1877
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMuller1877 (
help
)
,
Postgate 1920
,
Perry 1965
,
Guaglianone 1969
) or 103 (
Havet 1895
)
- ^
Currie 1984
, pp. 500?501
- ^
Perry, B. E.
(October 1957).
"
Fedro.
By Attilio de Lorenzi"
.
Classical Philology
.
52
(4): 267?9.
doi
:
10.1086/364195
. Retrieved
16 April
2023
.
- ^
Maguinness, W. S. (June 1957).
"Attilio de Lorenzi:
Fedro
"
.
The Classical Review
.
7
(2): 125?6.
doi
:
10.1017/S0009840X00176450
. Retrieved
16 April
2023
.
- ^
De Ruyt, Franz (1956).
"Attilio De Lorenzi,
Fedro.
"
.
L'Antiquite Classique
.
25
(2): 464?5
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
- ^
Champlin 2005
- ^
Champlin 2005
, p. 115
- ^
Herrmann 1950
- ^
Fordyce, C. J.
"Leon Herrmann:
Phedre et ses Fables.
"
.
The Classical Review
.
1
(3?4): 182.
doi
:
10.1017/S0009840X00175171
.
S2CID
163155420
. Retrieved
16 April
2023
.
- ^
Goodyear, F. R. D.
(March 1972).
"A New Edition of Phaedrus"
.
The Classical Review
.
22
(1): 50?52.
doi
:
10.1017/S0009840X00231879
.
JSTOR
707620
.
S2CID
162976730
. Retrieved
28 May
2023
.
- ^
Ernout, Alfred
(1951).
"Leon Herrmann,
Phedre et ses fables
"
.
Revue de Philologie, de Litterature et d'Histoire Anciennes
.
25
: 284
. Retrieved
16 April
2023
.
- ^
III prol. 1
- ^
a
b
Epigrammata
3, 20, 5
- ^
III prol.; V.7; V.21
- ^
Burman 1698
,
praef.
- ^
Havet 1895
, p. 259
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. vii
- ^
Oxford Classical Dictionary,
4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2012), s.v. "names, personal, Roman" (9)
- ^
a
b
c
Duff 1927
, p. 134
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Schiesaro 2012
- ^
a
b
Currie 1984
, p. 503
- ^
a
b
c
Perry 1965
, p. lxxx
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. viii
- ^
Ulysse Robert, ed.,
Les Fables de Phedre: Edition paleographique publiee d'apres le manuscrit Rosanbo
(Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1893)
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. lxxxxvi
- ^
Postgate 1920
, p. iii
- ^
Finch, Chauncey E. (April 1971).
"The Morgan Manuscript of Phaedrus"
.
The American Journal of Philology
.
92
(2): 301?7.
doi
:
10.2307/293340
.
JSTOR
293340
. Retrieved
16 April
2023
.
- ^
a
b
c
Marshall, Peter K. "Phaedrus," in
Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. 300?3
- ^
Rand, E. K.
(1922).
"A
Vade Mecum
of Liberal Culture in a Manuscript of Fleury"
.
Philological Quarterly
.
1
: 262?265
. Retrieved
20 April
2023
.
- ^
Finch, Chauncey E. (July 1971).
"Notes on the Fragment of Phaedrus in Reg. Lat. 1616"
.
Classical Philology
.
66
(3): 190?191.
doi
:
10.1086/365766
.
S2CID
161294299
. Retrieved
20 April
2023
.
- ^
Berger de Xivrey 1830
, p. 20
- ^
Carey, Frederick Mason (1926).
"The Vatican Fragment of Phaedrus"
.
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
.
57
: 96?103.
doi
:
10.2307/282767
.
JSTOR
282767
. Retrieved
16 April
2023
.
- ^
Zago 2020
, pp. xlv?xlvii
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. xxi
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, pp. 139?140
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. xlvii
- ^
Bodleian Library, D'Orville Collection
- ^
Henderson 1999
, p. 314
- ^
Meyier, Karel Adriaan de (1977).
Codices Vossiani Latini
. Vol. 3. Leiden University Press. pp. 31?41
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. xcix
- ^
Thiele, Georg, ed. (1905).
Der illustrierte Lateinische Aesop in der Handschrift des Ademar
. Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
- ^
Thiele, Georg, ed. (1910).
Der lateinische Asop des Romulus und die Prosa-Fassungen des Phadrus
. Heidelberg
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. xxxix
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. lxxxiii
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. xcviii
- ^
Nilant, Joan Frederik, ed. (1709).
Fabulæ antiquæ ex Phædro fere servatis ejus verbis desumptæ, & soluta oratione expositæ
. Leiden: Theodore Haak
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
- ^
a
b
Duff, J. Wight
.
"Phaedrus solutus vel Phaedri fabulae novae XXX"
.
Journal of Roman Studies
.
11
: 117?8.
doi
:
10.2307/295894
.
JSTOR
295894
.
S2CID
163467068
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
- ^
Hartman 1890
, p. 64
- ^
Postgate 1918
, pp. 151?2
- ^
Postgate 1920
, p. x
- ^
Zander 1921
- ^
Hanna Vamos, "The Mediaeval Tradition of the Fables of Romulus",
Graeco-Latina Brunensia
18.1, 2013,
pp.185-6
- ^
Duff 1927
, p. 136
- ^
Perry 1962
, p. 326
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. lxxxiv
- ^
Perry 1962
, p. 340
- ^
Perry 1965
, pp. xi?xiii
- ^
Perry 1965
, pp. xc?xci
- ^
Goodyear 1982
, p. 624
- ^
Albrecht 1997
, p. 1003
- ^
Mayer 2005
, p. 65
- ^
I prol. 3?4
- ^
Toller 1854
, p. 217
- ^
Champlin 2005
, pp. 117?18
- ^
Adrados 2000
, p. 173
- ^
Anne Becher,
“Phaedrus, a new found yet ancient author”
,
Paradigm
23 (July, 1997)
- ^
a
b
Postgate, J. P.
(February?March 1919).
"Phaedrus and Seneca"
.
The Classical Review
.
33
(1/2): 19?24.
doi
:
10.1017/S0009840X00012300
.
JSTOR
700098
.
S2CID
163562040
. Retrieved
14 April
2023
.
- ^
Champlin 2005
, p. 102
- ^
Digest
17.2.29.2
- ^
Champlin 2005
, p. 102
- ^
Fischer 1746
, pp. 6?7
- ^
Werner Karl Ludwig Ziegler
[
de
]
,
De mimis Romanorum commentatio
(Gottingen, 1788),
p. 75
- ^
Ludwig Friedlander
, ed.,
M. Valerii Martialis epigrammaton libri,
vol. I,
p. 292
- ^
Plessis 1909
, p. 487
- ^
Gronovius, Johann Friedrich
(1637).
In P. Papinii Statii Silvarum libros V diatribe
. The Hague: Theodore Maire. pp. 185?6.
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, p. 160
- ^
Teuffel 1920
,
§284, 3
- ^
Ellis 1894
, p. 8
- ^
Perry 1965
, p. li
- ^
Wilhelm Heraeus, ed.,
M. Valerii Martialis epigrammaton libri
(Leipzig: Teubner, 1925),
p. 64
- ^
Cesare Giarratano
[
it
]
, ed.,
M. Valerii Martialis epigrammaton libri XIV,
3rd ed. (Turin: Paravia, 1951), p. 92
- ^
D. R. Shackleton Bailey
, ed.,
Epigrammata
(Munich: K. G. Saur, 1990), p. 88
- ^
ThLL
VII/2
coll. 1612?3
- ^
P. G. W. Glare, ed.,
Oxford Latin Dictionary,
2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 1145 s.v. "logos"
- ^
A. E. Housman
,
"Notes on Martial,"
The Classical Quarterly
13:2, p. 69
- ^
Institutio Oratoria
I.9.2
- ^
Colson, F. H. (May?June 1919).
"Phaedrus and Quintilian I. 9. 2.: A Reply to Professor Postgate"
.
The Classical Review
.
33
(3/4): 59?61.
doi
:
10.1017/S0009840X0001252X
.
JSTOR
697378
.
S2CID
161231157
. Retrieved
14 April
2023
.
- ^
Albrecht 1997
, p. 1006
- ^
Zago 2020
, pp. ix?x
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. x
- ^
Istvan Szamoskozy
,
Analecta lapidum vetustorum et nonnullarum in Dacia antiquitatum
(Padua, 1593),
f. 71v
- ^
3, 17, 12
- ^
Johannes Troster
[
de
]
,
Das Alt- und Neu-Teutsche Dacia,
p. 464
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, pp. 148?9
- ^
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
III 58*
- ^
Ellis 1894
, pp. 7?8
- ^
Berger de Xivrey 1830
, p. 8
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, pp. 38 sqq.
- ^
Zago 2020
, p. xliii?xliv
- ^
Pithou 1596
,
n.p.
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPithou1596 (
help
)
- ^
Orelli 1831
, pp. 10?11
- ^
Ellis 1894
, p. 13
- ^
Zago 2020
, pp. xliv?xlv
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, pp. 111?2
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, p. 117
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, pp. 116 sqq.
- ^
Maria Luisa Perna,
"JANNELLI, Cataldo,"
in
Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani,
vol. 62 (2004)
- ^
Hervieux 1893
, p. 142
- ^
Æsops fables, with the fables of Phaedrus moralized
, London 1646
- ^
The Fables of Phaedrus translated into English prose
, London 1745
- ^
Gutenberg
- ^
Google Books
- ^
"Prologue", p.3
- ^
Toller 1854
- ^
Widdows 1992
- ^
pp.83-112
- ^
Osnovy Publishing
Bibliography
[
edit
]
Editions
[
edit
]
- Pierre Pithou
, ed.,
Phaedri Aug. liberti Fabularum Aesopiarum libri V
(Troyes: Jean Oudot, 1596)
- Nicolas Rigault
, ed.,
Phaedri Aug. liberti fabularum Æsopiarum lib. V
(Paris, 1599)
- Nicolas Rigault, ed.,
Phaedri Aug. liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri V
(Paris: Robert Estienne, 1617)
- Nicolas Rigault, ed.,
Phaedri Aug. liberti fabularum Æsopiarum libri V
(Paris, 1630)
- Peter Axen
[
de
]
, ed.,
Phaedri, Augusti liberti, fabularum Aesopiarum libri quinque
(Hamburg, 1671)
- Pieter Burman the Elder
, ed.,
Phædri, Aug. liberti fabularum Æsopiarum libri V
(Amsterdam, 1698)
- Pieter Burman the Elder, ed.,
Phaedri, Aug. liberti, fabularum Aesopiarum libri V
(The Hague, 1718)
- Pieter Burman the Elder, ed.,
Phaedri, Augusti liberti, fabularum Aesopiarum libri quinque
(Leiden, 1727)
- Cataldo Jannelli
[
it
]
, ed.,
Codex Perottinus Ms. Regiae Bibliothecae Neapolitanae duas et triginta Phaedri fabulas iam notas, totidem novas ... continens
(Naples, 1811)
- The fables of Phædrus, with a literal English translation
(London, 1828)
- Jules Berger de Xivrey
[
fr
]
, ed.,
Phaedri Aug. Liberti Fabularum Æsopiarum libros quatuor
(Paris, 1830)
- Johann Caspar von Orelli
, ed.,
Phaedri Aug. liberti fabulae Aesopiae
(Zurich: Orelli, Fuesslin, & Co., 1831)
- C. T. Dressler, ed.,
Phaedri Augusti liberti fabulae Aesopiae
(Bautzen, 1838)
- Lucian Muller
, ed.,
Phaedri Augusti liberti Fabulae Aesopiae
(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1867)
- Lucian Muller, ed.,
Phaedri Fabulae Aesopiae
(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1877)
- Leopold Hervieux, ed.,
Les Fabulistes latins,
vol. II, 2nd ed.
(Paris, 1894)
- Louis Havet
, ed.,
Phaedri Augusti liberti Fabulae Aesopiae
(Paris, 1895)
- Domenico Bassi
[
it
]
, ed.,
Phaedri Fabulae ad fidem codicis Neapolitani
(Turin: Paravia, 1918)
- John Percival Postgate
, ed.,
Phaedri Fabulae Aesopiae
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920)
- Carol Zander, ed.,
Phaedrus solutus, vel Phaedri fabulae novae XXX
(Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1921)
- Leon Herrmann
[
fr
]
,
Phedre et ses fables
(Leiden: Brill, 1950)
- Felice Ramorino, ed. and comm.,
Le Favole di Fedro
, 5th ed. (Turin: Giovanni Chiantore, 1925)
- Felice Ramorino, ed. and comm., with additions by
Francesco Della Corte
[
it
]
,
Le Favole di Fedro
, 6th ed. (Turin, 1959)
- Ben Edwin Perry
, ed. and tr.,
Babrius and Phaedrus: Fables
(Harvard University Press, 1965)
- Aldo Marsili, ed.,
Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri
(Pisa, 1966)
- Antonio Guaglianone, ed.,
Liber Fabularum
(Turin: Paravia, 1969)
- Otto Schonberger
[
de
]
, ed. and tr.,
Liber Fabularum/Fabelbuch
(Stuttgart, 1979)
- Eulogio Baeza Angulo, ed. and tr.,
Fedro. Fabulas esopicas
(Madrid, 2011)
- Niklas Holzberg
[
de
]
, ed. and tr.,
Fabeln
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018)
- Giovanni Zago, ed.,
Fabulae Aesopiae
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2020)
Translations
[
edit
]
English
[
edit
]
- Anonymous 1828
- Gibbs, Laura (2002).
Aesop's Fables
. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press.
- Henderson, John (2001).
Telling Tales on Caesar: Roman Stories from Phaedrus
. Oxford University Press.
- Henderson, John (2004).
Aesop's Human Zoo: Roman Stories about Our Bodies
. University of Chicago Press.
- Perry 1965
- Riley, Henry Thomas
(1880).
The Comedies of Terence and the Fables of Phaedrus Literally Translated into English Prose
. London: George Bell & Sons.
- Smart, Christopher
(1765).
A Poetical Translation of the Fables of Phaedrus
. London: J. Dodsley.
- Smart, Christopher
(1996) [1765]. Williamson, Karina (ed.).
The Poetical Works of Christopher Smart, Vol. 6: A Poetical Translation of the Fables of Phaedrus
. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
ISBN
9780198183600
.
- Rev. Frederick Toller,
A Poetical Version of the Fables of Phædrus
(London: J. and C. Mozley, 1854)
- P. F. Widdows,
The Fables of Phaedrus
(Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1992)
French
[
edit
]
- Tournier, Henri (2006).
Fables grecques et latines. Babrius et Phedre
. Aix-en-Provence: Publications de l'universite de Provence.
German
[
edit
]
Spanish
[
edit
]
- Gartner, Ursula (2015).
Phaedrus. Ein Interpretationskommentar zum ersten Buch der Fabeln
. Munich.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- Henderson 2001
- Henderson 2004
- Luzzatto, Maria Jagoda, ed. (1976).
Fedro: Un poeta tra favola e realta
. Turin: Paravia.
- Oberg, Eberhard (2000).
Phaedrus-Kommentar
(in German). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
- Ramorino 1959
(in Italian)
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Adrados, Francisco Rodriguez (2000).
"Phaedrus"
.
History of the Graeco-Latin Fable
. Vol. II. Translated by Ray, Leslie A. Leiden: Brill. pp. 119?174.
doi
:
10.1163/9789004351127_004
.
ISBN
9789004351127
.
- Albrecht, Michael von,
A History of Roman Literature
(Leiden: Brill, 1997), pp. 1002?7
- Bloomer, W. Martin (1997).
"The Rhetoric of Freedmen: The Fables of Phaedrus"
.
Latinity and Literary Society at Rome
. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 73?109.
doi
:
10.9783/9781512800999-005
.
- Champlin, Edward (2005). "Phaedrus the Fabulous".
The Journal of Roman Studies
.
95
: 97?123.
JSTOR
20066819
.
- Currie, H. MacL.,
"Phaedrus the Fabulist,"
in
Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt,
part II, volume 32/1 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1984), pp. 497?513.
- de Lorenzi, Attillio (1955).
Fedro
(in Italian). Florence: La Nuova Italia.
- Duff, J. Wight
(1927). "Phaedrus and Fable: Poetry of the Time".
A Literary History of Rome in the Silver Age
. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 133?154.
- Duff, J. Wight
(1936). "Phaedrus and Persius?Beast Fable and Stoic Homily".
Roman Satire
. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 106?125.
- Ellis, Robinson
.
The Fables of Phaedrus.
London: Henry Frowde, n.d. [1894].
- Fischer, Johann Friedrich (1746).
De Phaedro ejusque fabulis prolusio
. Leipzig.
- Glauthier, Patrick.
“Phaedrus, Callimachus and the Recusatio to Success.”
Classical Antiquity
, 28.2, 2009, pp. 248?278.
- Hartman, Jacobus Johannes
[
nl
]
,
De Phaedri fabulis commentatio
(Leiden: S. C. Van Doesburgh, 1890)
- Goodyear, F. R. D.
(1982).
"Early Principate: Minor Poetry"
.
Cambridge History of Classical Literature
. Vol. 2: Latin Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 624?6.
- Hausrath, August
[
de
]
,
"Phaedrus,"
in
Paulys
Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft
,
vol. 19 (Stuttgart, 1938), coll. 1475?1505.
- Henderson, John (1999).
"Phaedrus' "Fables:" The Original Corpus"
.
Mnemosyne
.
52
(3): 308?329.
doi
:
10.1163/156852599774228352
.
JSTOR
4432979
.
- Hervieux, Leopold,
Les Fabulistes latins,
vol. I, 2nd ed.
(Paris, 1893)
- Jennings, Victoria.
"Borrowed Plumes: Phaedrus' Fables, Phaedrus' Failures."
Writing Politics in Imperial Rome
. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2009.
- Lefkowitz, Jeremy B.
"Grand Allusions: Vergil in Phaedrus."
AJPh
137.3, 2016, pp. 487?509.
- Lefkowitz, Jeremy B.
"Innovation and Artistry in Phaedrus' Morals."
Mnemosyne
70.3, 2017, pp. 417?435.
- Libby, Brigitte B.
“The Intersection of Poetic and Imperial Authority in Phaedrus' Fables.”
The Classical Quarterly
, 60.2, 2010, pp. 545?558.
- Mayer, Roland, "The Early Empire: AD 14?68," in Stephen Harrison, ed.,
A Companion to Latin Literature
(Blackwell, 2005), pp. 58?68.
- Perry, B. E.
(1962).
"Demetrius of Phalerum and the Aesopic Fables"
.
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
.
93
: 287?346.
doi
:
10.2307/283766
.
JSTOR
283766
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
- Plessis, Frederic (1909).
La poesie latin
. Paris: C. Klicksieck.
- Polt, Christopher B.
“Polity Across the Pond: Democracy, Republic and Empire in Phaedrus' Fables 1.2.”
The Classical Journal
, 110.2, 2015, pp. 161?190.
- Postgate, J. P.
(July?October 1918).
"Phaedriana. II. The Novae Fabulae"
.
The Classical Quarterly
.
12
(3?4): 151?161+195.
doi
:
10.1017/S0009838800012581
.
JSTOR
635904
.
S2CID
170173384
. Retrieved
18 April
2023
.
- Schiesaro, Alessandro, "Phaedrus (4)," in
Oxford Classical Dictionary,
4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 1119.
- Teuffel, Wilhelm Siegmund
(1920).
Geschichte der romischen Literatur
(in German). Vol. II (7th ed.). Leipzig: B. G. Teubner. §284.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Gartner, Ursula (2015). "Phaedrus 1975?2014".
Lustrum
(in German).
57
: 7?90.
doi
:
10.13109/lutr.2015.57.1.7
.
- Holzberg, Niklas (1991). "Phaedrus in der Literaturkritik seit Lessing. Alte und neue Wege der Interpretation".
Anregung
.
37
(4): 226?242.
- Lamb, R. W. (1998).
Annales Phaedriani 1596?1996: A Bibliography of Phaedrus
. Lowestoft: privately printed.
ISBN
0-95333610-7
.
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
International
| |
---|
National
| |
---|
Academics
| |
---|
People
| |
---|
Other
| |
---|