Overview of hostility toward and/or discrimination against adherents of Buddhism
Many adherents of
Buddhism
have experienced
religious persecution
because of their adherence to the Buddhist practice, including unwarranted arrests, imprisonment, beating, torture, and/or execution. The term also may be used in reference to the confiscation or destruction of property, temples, monasteries, centers of learning, meditation centers, historical sites, or the incitement of hatred towards Buddhists.
[
citation needed
]
Pre-modern persecutions of Buddhism
[
edit
]
Sassanids
[
edit
]
In 224 CE
Zoroastrianism
was made the official religion of
Persia
, and other religions were not tolerated, thus halting the spread of Buddhism westwards.
[1]
In the 3rd century the
Sassanids
overran the
Bactrian
region, overthrowing
Kushan
rule,
[2]
were persecuted
[
clarification needed
]
with many of their
stupas
fired.
[1]
Although strong supporters of Zoroastrianism, the Sassanids tolerated Buddhism and allowed the construction of more Buddhist monasteries. It was during their rule that the Lokottaravada followers erected the two
Buddha statues at Bamiyan
.
[2]
During the second half of the third century, the Zoroastrian high priest Kirder dominated the religious policy of the state.
[2]
He ordered the destruction of several Buddhist monasteries in Afghanistan, since the amalgam of Buddhism and Zoroastrianism manifested in the form of a "Buddha-Mazda" deity appeared to him as heresy.
[2]
Buddhism quickly recovered after his death.
[2]
Pushyamitra Shunga
[
edit
]
The first persecution of Buddhists in India took place in the 2nd century BC by King
Pushyamitra Shunga
.
[3]
A non-contemporary Buddhist text states that Pushyamitra cruelly persecuted Buddhists. While some scholars believe he did persecute Buddhists based on the Buddhist accounts, others consider them biased because of him not patronising them.
[4]
Many other scholars have expressed skepticism about the Buddhist claims.
Etienne Lamotte
points out that the Buddhist legends are not consistent about the location of Pushyamitra's anti-Buddhist campaign and his death: "To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof."
[5]
Agreeing with him, D. Devahuti states that Pushyamitra's sudden destruction after offering rewards for Buddhist heads is "manifestly false". R. C. Mitra states that "The tales of persecution by Pushyamitra as recorded in
Divyavadana
and by Taranatha bear marks of evident absurdity."
[6]
Hepthalites
[
edit
]
Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the
White Hun
invasion who followed their own religions such as
Tengri
and
Manichaeism
.
[2]
Around 440 CE they conquered
Sogdiana
then conquered
Gandhara
and pushed on into the
Gangetic Plains
.
[1]
[2]
Their King Mihirkula who ruled from 515 CE suppressed Buddhism, destroying monasteries as far as modern-day
Allahabad
before his son reversed the policy.
[2]
Pandyas and Pallavas
[
edit
]
There is no citation for the below story. Scholars like
Paul Dundas
have also called it a 'mythical story'
[7]
After the
Kalabhra
interregnum, the Tamil states of the
Pandyas
and
Pallavas
reemerged, reviving the
Saivite
and
Vaishnavite
native religions. Further, the Saivite saint
Thirugnanasambandar
theologically defeated 8000 Sramanas with Buddhist names among them. When they rebelled, they were impaled by
Koon Pandiyan
at
Samanatham
near
Madurai
.
Mahendravarma Pallava
under
Appar
, a reformed Saivite saint destroyed Sramana monuments and wrote
Mattavilasaprahasana
, a comic play on the heretical (non Vedic) sects of the time including Buddhism. These events are considered to be the ushering in of the
Bhakti era
in India which resulted in the routing of Buddhism in the India.
[
citation needed
]
Persecution under Hindus
[
edit
]
Another story is recounted by D N Jha, based on Rajatarangini, persecution of Buddhists also happened in the time of King Gonandiya-Ashoka (different from King Ashoka of Mauryan Empire). Jha writes that according to a book Rajatarangini, dated to the 12th century, Jalauka
Jalauka
(son of Gonandiya) was a Shaivite and was responsible for the destruction of many Buddhist monasteries.
[8]
The story of Jalauka is essentially legendary, and its to be noted that no independent corroboration of the Kashmir tradition has ever been discovered.
[9]
Patanjali
, a famous grammarian stated in his
Mahabhashya
that Brahmins and
?rama?a
, which included Buddhists, were eternal enemies
[8]
With the emergence of Hindu rulers of the
Gupta Empire
, Hinduism saw a major
revivalism
in the Indian subcontinent which challenged Buddhism which was at that time at its zenith. Even though Gupta empire was tolerant towards Buddhism and patronized Buddhist arts and religious institutions, Hindu revivalism generally became a major threat to Buddhism which led to its decline. A Buddhist illustrated palm leaf manuscript from
Pala period
(one of the earliest Indian illustrated manuscripts to survive in modern times) is preserved in University of Cambridge library. Composed in the year 1015, the manuscript contains a note from the year 1138 by a Buddhist believer called Karunavajra which indicates that without his efforts, the manuscript would have been destroyed during a political struggle for power. The note states that 'he rescued the
Perfection of Wisdom
, incomparable Mother of the Omniscient' from falling into the hands of unbelievers (who according to Camillo Formigatti were most probably people of Brahmanical affiliation).
[10]
In 1794 Jagat Singh, Dewan (minister) of Raja
Chet Singh
of
Banaras
began excavating two pre Ashokan era stupas at Sarnath for construction material. Dharmarajika stupa was completely demolished and only its foundation exists today while Dhamekh stupa incurred serious damage. During excavation a green marble relic casket was discovered from Dharmarajika stupa which contained Buddha's ashes was subsequently thrown into
Ganges river
by Jagat Singh according to his Hindu faith. The incident was reported by a British resident and timely action of
East India Company
officials saved Dhamekh Stupa from demolition.
[11]
The Asokavadana legend has been likened to a Buddhist version of Pushyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, reflecting the declining influence of Buddhism in the Shunga Imperial court. Later Shunga kings were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at
Bharhut
.
[12]
The
decline of Buddhism in India
did not set in until the Gupta dynasty.
Archeological remains of stupas have been found in Deorkothar that suggest deliberate destruction, conjectured to be one mentioned in Divyavadana about Pushyamitra.
[13]
However, it is unclear whether the stupas were destroyed in ancient India or a much later period, and the existence of religious violence between Hinduism and Buddhism in ancient India has been disputed.
[14]
[15]
It is unclear when the Deorkothar stupas were destroyed, and by whom. The fictional tales of Divyavadana is considered by scholars
[16]
as being of doubtful value as a historical record.
Moriz Winternitz
, for example, stated, "these legends [in the Divy?vad?na] scarcely contain anything of much historical value".
[16]
Similarly, Paul Williams states that the persecution claims with alleged dates of Buddha's nirvana (400 BCE) and the subsequent Pusyamitra reign, as depicted in the Mahasanghika school of early Buddhism are the "most far fetched of all the arguments and hardly worth of any further discussion".
[17]
According to other scholars, the Shunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at
Bharhut
[18]
and an inscription at Bodh Gaya at the
Mahabodhi Temple
records the construction of the temple as follows, "The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra". Another inscription reads: "The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine."
[19]
Pandyas and Pallavas
[
edit
]
After the
Kalabhra
interregnum, the Tamil states of the
Pandyas
and
Pallavas
reemerged, reviving the
Saivite
and
Vaishnavite
native religions. Further, the Saivite saint
Thirugnanasambandar
theologically defeated 8000 Sramanas with Buddhist names among them. When they rebelled, they were impaled by
Koon Pandiyan
at
Samanatham
near
Madurai
.
Mahendravarma Pallava
under
Appar
, a reformed Saivite saint destroyed Sramana monuments and wrote
Mattavilasaprahasana
, a comic play on the heretical (non Vedic) sects of the time including Buddhism. These events are considered to be the ushering in of the
Bhakti era
in India which resulted in the routing of Buddhism in the India.
Persecution under other Kingdoms
[
edit
]
Emperor Wuzong of Tang
[
edit
]
Emperor Wuzong of Tang
(814?846) indulged in indiscriminate religious persecution, solving a financial crisis by seizing the property of Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism had developed into a major religious force in China during the
Tang period
, and its monasteries had tax-exempt status. Wuzong closed many Buddhist shrines, confiscated their property, and sent the monks and nuns home to lay life. Apart from economic reasons, Wuzong's motivation was also philosophical or ideological. As a zealous
Taoist
, he considered Buddhism a foreign religion that was harmful to Chinese society. He went after other foreign religions as well, all but eradicating
Zoroastrianism
and
Manichaeism
in China, and his persecution of the growing
Nestorian Christian
churches sent Chinese Christianity into a decline from which it never recovered.
King Langdarma of Tibet
[
edit
]
Langdarma
was a Tibetan King, who reigned from 838 to 841 CE. He is believed to have been anti-Buddhist and a follower of the
Bon
religion.
Oirat Mongols
[
edit
]
The
Oirats
(Western Mongols) converted to
Tibetan Buddhism
around 1615. The
Dzungars
were a confederation of several
Oirat
tribes that emerged suddenly in the early 17th century. The Dzungar Khanate was the last great
nomadic empire
in Asia. In the 18th century, the Dzungars were annihilated by
Qianlong Emperor
in several campaigns. About 80% of the Dzungar population, or around 500,000 to 800,000 people, were killed during or after the
Zunghar Genocide
by Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols during the Manchu conquest in 1755?1757.
[20]
The
Kalmyk Khanate
was founded in the 17th century with Tibetan Buddhism as its main religion, following the earlier migration of the
Oirats
from Dzungaria through Central Asia to the steppe around the mouth of the
Volga River
. During the course of the 18th century, they were absorbed by the Russian Empire, which was then expanding to the south and east. The Russian Orthodox church pressured many
Kalmyks
to adopt Orthodoxy. In the winter of 1770?1771, about 300,000 Kalmyks set out to return to China. Their goal was to retake control of Dzungaria from the
Qing dynasty
of China.
[21]
Along the way many were attacked and killed by
Kazakhs
and
Kyrgyz
, their historical enemies based on intertribal competition for land, and many more died of starvation and disease. After several months of travel, only one-third of the original group reached
Dzungaria
and had no choice but to surrender to the Qing upon arrival.
[22]
Persecutions by Muslim Empires
[
edit
]
Arab invasions
[
edit
]
Qutaybah ibn Muslim
, the Arab general of
Khorasan
conquered a number of territories in
Central Asia
including
Samarkand
where he broke a number of images.
[23]
Several instances of Buddhist shrines being destroyed by the advancing Muslims are recorded though the religion continued to survive in some places for a considerable period of time. Bertolf Spuler cites the writings of
Narshakhi
while stating that the residents of
Bukhara
had reconverted from Islam to Buddhism four times until it was conquered by Qutayba in 712?13. A mosque was built in the city in place of a Buddhist monastery. Buddhists continued to live there until the tenth century. Similarly, Buddhism continued to exist in other places like Old Bukhara, Simingan in southern
Tukharistan
,
Bamiyan
and Kabul with suburbs inhabited by "Indians" which were also home to Buddhists. However, the religion could no longer develop as a power or distribute propaganda and its adherents also had to abandon the conversion of peoples in these regions.
[24]
Scholars like
Richard Nelson Frye
have doubted the story of Marshaki, pointing out that unlike its statement, Qutayba ibn Muslim did not live during the time of
Umayyad
Caliph Mu'awiya, as this story suggests, but rather much later.
[25]
In addition to discrimination, emigration, and the conversion of the laity, Buddhism and its monasteries also declined with the Muslims taking over the trade along the
Silk Road
as well as in
Sindh
.
[26]
[27]
[28]
During their conquest of Sindh, the Arabs brought the non-Muslims into the category of
ahl al-kitab
, considering them
ahl al-dhimmah
(protected subjects) and thus practicing a certain amount of non-interference in their religious lives under the condition that they fulfil a number of obligations that came with this status. Since both Buddhism and Hinduism are literate religions with scriptures, the precedent of assimilating
Zoroastrians
into the category of
ahl al-kitab
was extended to them as well. The
dhimmis
were obligated to pay the
jizya
for following their ancestral religion. The historian
Al-Baladhuri
notes a decision by
Muhammad bin Qasim
in relation to a Buddhist
vihara
and
Aror
that after conquering the city through a treaty (
sulh
) he agreed not to kill the people and enter their temple, in addition to imposing
kharaj
on them.
[29]
The Buddhists had petitioned the Arabs for the right to restore one of their temples and it was granted by
Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
. However, this decision was later violated by the
Pact of Umar
and subsequent Muslim law codes which prohibited the restoration of existing non-Muslim religious structures as well as the building of new ones. Despite this fact, Buddhist inscriptions were still being recorded in the eleventh century.
[28]
Some Buddhists also fled and emigrated from Muslim-ruled areas into other regions. Unlike Brahmanical worship, Buddhism rapidly declined in Sindh after the eighth century and it virtually disappeared by the eleventh century.
[28]
[27]
The Arabs conquered
Balkh
which was a centre of Buddhism. Many people in Balkh were sympathetic to Buddhism after the conquest and they were harshly denounced by adherents of Islamic orthodoxy.
[30]
The Buddhist monastery of Nava Vihara which had become a symbol of national resistance was damaged under
Muawiyah I
in 663.
[31]
The Arabs allowed the non-Muslims to practice their religion as long as they paid the poll-tax called
jizya
.
[32]
In addition to the destruction of Buddhist temples, part of the old city was also destroyed during the Arab conquest.
[33]
Nava Vihara continued to remain open according to historical accounts.
[32]
Along with it, many other viharas evidently continued to function in Central Asia for at least a century after the Arab conquests.
[34]
Al-Biruni
records the existence of the religion and its monasteries in the early eleventh century.
[28]
The eighth-century Korean traveller
Hui'Chao
records
Hinayanists
in Balkh under Arab rule.
[35]
The city was reduced to ruins by 705 as a result of frequent revolts.
[36]
It is visible from some copper-plate inscriptions that some Buddhists had moved to other domains.
[28]
Al-Ma'mun
(r. 813-833 A.D.) while visiting Khorasan, launched an attack on Kabul, whose ruler submitted to taxation.
[37]
The king of Kabul was captured and he then converted to Islam.
[38]
Per sources, when the Shah submitted to al-Ma'mun, he sent his crown and bejeweled throne, later seen by the
Meccan
historian
al-Azraqi
to the Caliph who praised Fadl for "curbing polytheists, breaking idols, killing the refractory" and refers to his successes against Kabul's king and
ispahabad
. Other near-contemporary sources however refer to the artifacts as a golden jewel-encrusted idol sitting on a silver throne by the
Hindu Shahi
ruler or by an unnamed ruler of "Tibet" as a sign of his conversion to Islam.
[39]
India
[
edit
]
According to Lars Fogelin, the
Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent
is "not a singular event, with a singular cause; it was a centuries-long process."
[41]
Various personages involved in the revival of Buddhism in India such as
Anagarika Dharmapala
and
The Mahabodhi Movement
of the 1890s as well as Dr.
B. R. Ambedkar
hold the Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of Buddhism in India.
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
In 1193,
Qutb-ud-din Aybak
, the founder of the
Delhi Sultanate
and
first Muslim ruler in India
, left defenseless the northeastern territories that were the heart of Buddhist India. The
Mahabodhi Temple
was almost completely destroyed by the invading Muslim forces.
[43]
One of Qutb-ud-Din's generals,
Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji
, who later becomes the first Muslim ruler of
Bengal
and
Bihar
, invaded
Magadha
and destroyed the Buddhist shrines and institutions at
Nalanda
,
Vikramasila
and
Odantapuri
, which declined the practice of
Buddhism
in
East India
.
[40]
[47]
[43]
Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries
[48]
near
Benares
. Buddhist monks who escaped the massacre fled to
Nepal
,
Tibet
and
South India
.
[49]
Tamerlane
destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had flourished.
[50]
[51]
Mughal
rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into Muslim shrines and mosques.
[52]
Mughal rulers like
Aurangzeb
destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and replaced them with mosques.
[53]
Others
[
edit
]
The
Saffarids
had sent looted Buddhist and Hindu icons to the Abbasids as gifts.
[54]
The Mongol ruler
Ghazan
called on Buddhists to convert to Islam or leave the
Ilkhanate
and ordered their temples to be destroyed, but he later adopted a slightly less severe position.
[55]
Though he had earlier supported their persecution as well as the persecution of other non-Muslims, his religious policies changed after the death of
Nowruz
with punishments imposed on perpetrators of religious intolerance and attempts to restore relations with non-Muslims.
[56]
Although the religion survived there,
[57]
[58]
it never recovered from the assault by Ghazan.
[59]
Xinjiang
[
edit
]
The historical area of what is modern day
Xinjiang
consisted of the distinct areas of the
Tarim Basin
and
Dzungaria
, and it was originally populated by
Indo-European
Tocharian
and
Iranic
Saka
peoples who practiced the Buddhist religion. The area was subjected to Turkification and Islamification at the hands of invading Turkic Muslims.
Conquest of Buddhist Khotan
[
edit
]
The Islamic attacks and conquest of the Buddhist cities east of Kashgar was started by the Turkic Karakhanid Satok Bughra Khan who in 966 converted to Islam and many tales emerged about the Karakhanid ruling family's war against the Buddhists, Satok Bughra Khan's nephew or grandson Ali Arslan was slain by the Buddhists during the war. Buddhism lost territory to Islam during the Karakhanid reign around the Kashgar area.
[60]
A long war ensued between Islamic Kashgar and Buddhist Khotan which eventually ended in the conquest of Khotan by Kashgar.
[61]
Iranic Saka peoples originally inhabited Yarkand and Kashgar in ancient times. The Buddhist Iranic Saka Kingdom of Khotan was the only city-state that was not conquered yet by the Turkic Uyghur (Buddhist) and the Turkic Qarakhanid (Muslim) states and its ruling family used Indian names and the population were devout Buddhists. The Buddhist entitites of Dunhuang and Khotan had a tight-knit partnership, with intermarriage between Dunhuang and Khotan's rulers and Dunhuang's Mogao grottos and Buddhist temples being funded and sponsored by the Khotan royals, whose likenesses were drawn in the Mogao grottoes.
[62]
The rulers of Khotan were aware of the menace they faced since they arranged for the Mogao grottoes to paint a growing number of divine figures along with themselves. Halfway in the 10th century Khotan came under attack by the Qarakhanid ruler Musa, and in what proved to be a pivotal moment in the Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin, the Karakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006.
[62]
The Ta?kirah is a genre of literature written about Sufi Muslim saints in
Altishahr
. Written sometime in the period from 1700 to 1849, the Eastern Turkic language (modern Uyghur)
Ta?kirah of the Four Sacrificed Imams
provides an account of the Muslim Karakhanid war against the Khotanese Buddhists, containing a story about Imams, from Mada'in city (possibly in modern-day Iraq) came four Imams who traveled to help the Islamic conquest of Khotan, Yarkand, and Kashgar by Yusuf Qadir Khan, the Qarakhanid leader.
[63]
Accounts of the battles waged by the invading Muslims upon the indigenous Buddhists takes up most of the Ta?kirah with descriptions such as "blood flows like the Oxus", "heads litter the battlefield like stones" being used to describe the murderous battles over the years until the "infidels" were defeated and driven towards Khotan by Yusuf Qadir Khan and the four Imams, but the Imams were assassinated by the Buddhists prior to the last Muslim victory so Yusuf Qadir Khan assigned Khizr Baba, who was born in Khotan but whose mother originated from western Turkestan's Mawarannahr, to take care of the shrine of the four Imams at their tomb and after Yusuf Qadir Khan's conquest of new land in Altishahr towards the east, he adopted the title "King of the East and China".
[64]
Due to the Imams deaths in battle and burial in Khotan, Altishahr, despite their foreign origins, they are viewed as local saints by the current Muslim population in the region.
[65]
Muslim works such as
?ud?d al-??lam
contained anti-Buddhist rhetoric and polemic against Buddhist Khotan,
[66]
aimed at "dehumanizing" the Khotanese Buddhists, and the Muslims Kara-Khanids conquered Khotan just 26 years following the completion of ?ud?d al-??lam.
[66]
Muslims gouged the eyes of Buddhist murals along Silk Road caves and Kashgari recorded in his Turkic dictionary an anti-Buddhist poem/folk song.
[67]
The
Karakhanid
leader Satuq Bughra Khan and his son proselytized Islam among the Turks and ordered the destruction of Buddhist temples.
[68]
The Islamic conquest of Khotan led to alarm in the east. Dunhuang's Cave 17, which contained Khotanese literary works, may have been sealed, possibly after its caretakers heard that Khotan's Buddhist buildings were razed by the Muslims, and Khotan had suddenly ceased to be Buddhist.
[69]
In 1006, the Muslim Kara-Khanid ruler Yusuf Kadir (Qadir) Khan of Kashgar conquered Khotan, ending Khotan's existence as an independent state. The war was described as a Muslim
Jihad
(holy war) by the Japanese Professor Takao Moriyasu. The Karakhanid Turkic Muslim writer
Mahmud al-Kashgari
wrote a poem on the conquest:
We came down on them like a flood,
We went out among their cities,
We tore down the idol-temples,
We shat on the Buddha's head!
[66]
[67]
[69]
[70]
[71]
[a]
Idols of "infidels" were subjected to desecration by being defecated upon by Muslims when the "infidel" country was conquered by the Muslims, according to Muslim tradition.
[72]
Islamic conquest of the Buddhist Uighurs
[
edit
]
The Buddhist Uyghurs of the Kingdom of Qocho and Turfan were converted to Islam by conquest during a ghazat (holy war) at the hands of the Muslim Chagatai Khizr Khwaja.
[73]
Kara Del
was a Mongolian who ruled an Uighur-populated Buddhist Kingdom. The Muslim Chagatai Khan Mansur invaded and used the sword to make the population convert to Islam.
[74]
[
better source needed
]
After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously
Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan
failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (
Dzungars
) were the ones who built Buddhist monuments in their area.
[75]
[76]
[77]
[78]
Persecution by militaristic regimes
[
edit
]
Imperial Japan
[
edit
]
Some Buddhist monks were forced to return to the laity, Buddhist property was confiscated, Buddhist institutions were closed, and Buddhist schools were reorganized under state control in order to separate
Shinto
from Buddhism. However, this persecution was short lived.
[79]
The state-control of Buddhism was part of Imperial Japanese policy both at home and abroad in
Korea
and other conquered territories.
[80]
Persecution in Burma
[
edit
]
The
Burmese military government
has attempted to control Buddhist institutions through coercive means, including the intimidation, torture, and murder of monks.
[81]
After monks played an active role in the protest movements against the
then-ruling socialist military dictatorship
and later the
then-ruling military dictatorship
in
1988
during the
Fall of Socialism
and
2007
, the state cracked down on
Buddhist monks
and
monasteries
.
[82]
Persecution by nationalist political parties
[
edit
]
Persecution in the Republic of China under the Kuomintang
[
edit
]
During the
Northern Expedition
, in 1926 in
Guangxi
,
Kuomintang
Muslim General
Bai Chongxi
led his troops in destroying Buddhist temples and smashing statues, forcefully turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters.
[83]
It was reported that almost all Buddhist monasteries in Guangxi were destroyed by Bai in this manner. The monks were removed.
[84]
Bai led a wave of anti foreignism in Guangxi, attacking Americans, Europeans, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. Westerners fled from the province, and some
Chinese Christians
were also attacked as imperialist agents.
[85]
The three goals of his movement were anti-foreignism, anti-imperialism, and anti-religion. Bai led the anti-religious movement, against
superstition
. Muslims have hostile attitude toward idol-worship and his personal faith may have influenced Bai to take action against the statues of deities in the temples and the superstitious practices rampant in China.
Huang Shaoxiong
, also a Kuomintang member of the New Guangxi Clique, supported Bai's campaign, and Huang was not a Muslim, the anti religious campaign was agreed upon by all Guangxi Kuomintang members.
[85]
During the
Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai
the Muslim General
Ma Bufang
destroyed Tibetan Buddhist monasteries with support from the Kuomintang government.
[86]
Ma served as a general in the
National Revolutionary Army
, and sought to expand the
Republic of China
's control over all of Qinghai, as well as the possibility of bringing Tibet back into the Republic by force. When Ma Bufang launched seven expeditions into
Golog
, killing thousands of Tibetans, the Republic of China government, known as the Kuomintang, supported Ma Bufang.
[86]
Ma was highly anti-communist, and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and destroyed
Tibetan Buddhist
temples.
[87]
Persecution by Muslims
[
edit
]
Afghanistan
[
edit
]
The Muslim Mughal emperor,
Aurangzeb
, tried to use heavy artillery to destroy the Buddha statues but failed. Another failed attempt to destroy the Bamiyan statues was made by the 18th century Persian king
Nader Afshar
, who directed cannon fire at them.
[88]
The enormous statues, the male Salsal ("light shines through the universe") and the (smaller) female Shamama ("Queen Mother"),
[89]
as they were called by the ignorant locals, did not fail to fire the imagination of Islamic writers in centuries past. The larger statue reappears as the malevolent giant Salsal in medieval Turkish tales.
[90]
Afghan Muslim King
Abdur Rahman Khan
destroyed its face during a military campaign against the Shia Hazara rebellion.
[91]
An explorer named Alexander Burnes made a sensationalized drawing of the statues in the 1830s.
[92]
The Bamiyan Buddhas were eventually destroyed by the fundamentalist Islamist
Taliban
regime in 2001 after not able to get monetary funding, in defiance of worldwide condemnation. The statues were blown up and fired upon by rockets and gunfire.
Excavators at the Buddhist site of
Mes Aynak
have been denounced as "promoting Buddhism" and threatened by the Taliban and many of the Afghan excavators who are working for purely financial reasons do not feel any connection to the Buddhist artifacts.
[93]
Pakistan
[
edit
]
Swat Valley
in Pakistan has many Buddhist carvings, stupas and Jehanabad contains a Seated Buddha statue.
[94]
Kushan era Buddhist stupas and statues in Swat valley were demolished by the Taliban and after two attempts by the Taliban, the Jehanabad Buddha's face was dynamited.
[95]
[96]
[97]
Only the Bamiyan Buddhas were larger than the carved giant Buddha status in Swat near Manglawar which the Taliban attacked.
[98]
The government did nothing to safeguard the statue after the initial attempt at destroying the Buddha, which did not cause permanent harm, and when the second attack took place on the statue the feet, shoulders, and face were demolished.
[99]
Islamists such as the Taliban and looters destroyed much of Pakistan's Buddhist artifacts left over from the Buddhist Gandhara civilization especially in Swat Valley.
[100]
The Taliban deliberately targeted Gandhara Buddhist relics for destruction.
[101]
The Christian Archbishop of Lahore
Lawrence John Saldanha
wrote a letter to Pakistan's government denouncing the Taliban activities in Swat Valley including their destruction of Buddha statues and their attacks on Christians, Sikhs, and Hindus.
[102]
Gandhara Buddhist artifacts were illegally looted by smugglers.
[103]
A rehabilitation attempt on the Buddha was made by Luca Olivieri from Italy.
[104]
A group of Italians helped repair the Buddha.
[105]
Bangladesh
[
edit
]
In
Bangladesh
, the persecution of the indigenous tribes of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts
such as the
Chakma
, Marma, Tripura and others who are mainly Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, and Animists, has been described as genocidal.
The Chittagong Hill Tracts are located bordering India, Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal, and is the home to 500,000 indigenous people. The perpetrators of are the Bangladeshi military and the
Bengali
Muslim settlers, who together have burned down Buddhist and Hindu temples, killed many Chakmas, and carried out a policy of gang-rape against the indigenous people. There are also accusations of Chakmas being forced to convert to Islam, many of them children who have been abducted for this purpose. The conflict started soon after Bangladeshi independence in 1972 when the Constitution imposed Bengali as the sole official language, Islam as the state religion ? with no cultural or linguistic rights to minority populations. Subsequently, the government encouraged and sponsored massive settlement by Bangladeshis in region, which changed the demographics from 98 percent indigenous in 1971 to fifty percent by 2000. The government allocated a full third of the Bangladeshi military to the region to support the settlers, sparking a protracted guerilla war between Hill tribes and the military.
During this conflict which officially ended in 1997, and in the subsequent period, a large number of human rights violations against the indigenous peoples have been reported, with violence against indigenous women being particularly extreme.
[112]
Bengali settlers and soldiers have raped native Jumma (Chakma) women "with impunity" with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers.
[113]
The Karuna Bihar Buddhist temple was attacked by Bengali settlers.
[114]
Chittagong Hill Tracts
had 98.5% Buddhist and Hindu population in 1947 during the partition of India.
[115]
The British gave the Buddhist dominated land to East Pakistan against the principles of partition and against wishes of indigenous people. Chittagong Hill Tracts is the traditional home of the
Chakma
,
Marma
,
Tripura
,
Mro
, Khumi and other indigenous tribes who mainly practice Buddhism. Successive Pakistan and Bangladeshi governments had been encouraging Muslim migration into the Chittagong Hill Tracts to dilute the indigenous Buddhist population. Indigenous Buddhist people of Chittagong Hill Tracts resisted the colonization of their land by demographic engineering. In response Bangladesh government sent tens of thousands of military personnel to the Chittagong Hill Tracts to protect the Muslim settlers and fight the indigenous resistance movement named
Shanti Bahini
.
Bangladesh Army
in league with the Muslim settlers committed 13 major massacres in the span of 15 years between 1980 and 1995 slaughtering hundreds of indigenous Buddhist people in each massacre.
[116]
They committed numerous other massacres killing 10 to 20 people since birth of Bangladesh in 1971. Apart from mass killing Bangladesh and Muslim settlers are involved in extra-judicial execution of the indigenous people. Indigenous people are victims of arbitrary arrest and detention. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers often subject them to severe torture and beating. Indigenous Buddhist women and even minor girls are vulnerable to rape by Muslim settlers and Bangladesh army. Bangladesh army and Muslim settlers had raped thousands of indigenous Buddhist women and girls. Indigenous Buddhist people are subjected to systematic proselytization by the Bangladesh government and many Saudi funded Islamic missionary organizations. Bangladesh army also resort to forcible conversion. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers destroyed and desecrated hundreds of Buddhist temples in Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Massacres
[
edit
]
Between 1980 and 1995,
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers committed at least 13 major massacres against the indigenous Buddhist people in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts
. No military personnel or settler was ever tried for these massacres. The massacres are usually carried out to evict indigenous people from their villages or in retaliation to
Shanti Bahini
attacks.
[117]
- Kaukhali Massacre 25 March 1980
The commander of the Bangladesh army at Kaukhali ordered the indigenous Buddhist people to gather at Kaukhali Bazar in the morning of 25 March 1980 to discuss the repair of the Poapara Buddhist Vihara. On 25 March 1980, when indigenous Buddhist people gathered at Kaukhali Bazar,
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers suddenly attacked and massacred an estimated 300
Chakma
and
Marma
Buddhists at
Kaukhali
in Rangamati district.
[117]
- Barkal Massacre 31 May 1984
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers attacked several Buddhist villages of Bhusanchara, Bhusanbagh, Het Baria, Suguri Para, Goranstan, Tarengya Ghat in
Barkal
and massacred more than 400
Chakma
Buddhists.
Amnesty International
collected 67 names killed in the massacre.
[118]
- Panchari Massacre 1?2 May 1986
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers attacked indigenous Buddhist villages of Golakpatimachara, Kalanal, Soto Karmapara, Shantipur, Mirjibil, Hetarachara, Pujgang, Logang, Hathimuktipara, Sarveshwarpara, Napidpara and Dewan Bazar. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers randomly opened fire on indigenous people massacred hundreds of
Chakma
Buddhists.
Amnesty International
collected more than 50 names killed in the massacre.
[119]
- Matiranga Massacre 1?7 May 1986
Between 1 and 7 May 1986, widespread military operation and persecution forced a group of
Tripuri people
to take refuge in the jungle between Sarveswarpara and Manudaspara in
Matiranga
. While they were trying to reach india,
Bangladesh Army
detected and ambushed them. Bangladesh army massacred at least 60 indigenous Tripuri people.
[120]
- Matiranga Massacre 18?19 May 1986
To escape systematic persecution, a large group of indigenous
Tripuri people
were trying to reach India by following jungle trails. However Bangladesh army discovered and surrounded them. Bangladesh army took them to a narrow valley between Comillatila and Taidong in
Matiranga
. Bangladesh army suddenly opened fire in the restricted space and killed at least 200 indigenous Tripuri people.
[121]
- Baghaichari Massacre 3?10 August 1988
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers launched a week long campaign of terror in retaliation for
Shanti Bahini
attacks on Bangladeshi armed forces and Muslim settlements. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers attacked Durchari, Khedamara, Battuli, Sarwatuli villages in
Baghaichari
and murdered more than 500 indigenous Chakma Buddhists.
[122]
- Langadu Massacre 4 May 1989
Un-identified gunmen murdered a Muslim community leader Abdur Rashid of
Langadu
. Bangladesh military and civil administration suspected Buddhist resistance movement
Shanti Bahini
murdered the Muslim leader.
Bangladesh Army
agitated the Muslim settlers. Muslim settlers attacked the indigenous
Buddhist people
of
Langadu
with the encouragement of the Bangladesh military ad civil authorities. More than 50 indigenous Buddhist people were massacred with swords and lances.
[123]
- Malya Massacre 2 Feb 1992
A commuter ferry loaded with people was sailing from Marishya to Rangamati. A bomb exploded at Malya in
Langadu Upazila
. According to eyewitnesses, two Bangladesh military personnel planted the bomb. Bangladesh government had settled many Muslim settlers at Malya by displacing indigenous Buddhist people. The survivors of the explosion swam to the shore. But Muslim settlers were waiting for them with weapons and attacked them when reached the shore. More than 30 indigenous
Buddhist people
were massacred.
[124]
- Logang Massacre 10 April 1992
2 Muslim settlers armed with swords attempted to rape indigenous
Buddhist
girls who were grazing cows at Logang in
Panchari
. An indigenous man defended the girls and was killed in the brawl. The Muslim settler ran to the
Bangladesh Army
camp and spread the rumor that indigenous people attacked them. In reprisal Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers attacked indigenous people at Logang and massacred more than 500 indigenous people.
[125]
- Naniachar Massacre 17 November 1993
Indigenous
Buddhist
people demanded the
Bangladesh Army
check post at Naniachar in
Rangamati
be removed. Bangladesh Army often harassed indigenous Buddhist people from the check post at Naniachar Ferry Stoppage. Indigenous Buddhist people gathered at Naniachar Bazar to protest harassment. Muslim settlers with the direct help from the Bangladesh Army attacked the peaceful demonstration of the indigenous people and murdered at least 66 indigenous people.
[125]
Unlawful killing
[
edit
]
Besides mass killing, indigenous
Buddhist
people are also killed in small numbers by
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers. Most common form of killing occurs when indigenous people are detained and beaten in numerous Bangladeshi military, intelligence and police installations in the
CHT
. Killings also occur when Bangladesh Army randomly open fire at villagers.
Bangladesh Government
provides weapons to Muslim settlers and they are also responsible for killing of indigenous people. The Muslim settlers often join the armed forces in raid of indigenous villages and involved in killing indigenous people by firearms or crude sharp weapons. The settlers also take part in communal riots instigated by the Bangladesh Army and kill indigenous Buddhist people.
[126]
Detention and torture
[
edit
]
Indigenous people are detained without warrant and often tortured in the custody of
Bangladeshi armed forces
. Bangladeshi armed forces detain and torture indigenous
Buddhist
people on mere suspicion of being members of the
Shanti Bahini
or helping the Shanti Bahini. There were numerous check posts on highways and ferries in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts
. Bangladeshi armed forces interrogate and detain indigenous travelers from these check posts. Bangladeshi armed forces raid indigenous Buddhist villages and torture indigenous people on suspicion of sheltering and feeding the Shanti Bahini.
[127]
Indigenous people who are detained in military camps and cantonments are subjected to severe beating, electrocution, water boarding, hanging upside down, shoving burning cigarettes on bodies etc. Prisoners are detained in pits and trenches. Bangladeshi soldiers sprinkle hot water on indigenous prisoners. Indigenous captives are then taken out for interrogation one at a time. Indigenous people are often tortured during interrogation.
Rape and abduction
[
edit
]
Bangladesh Government
tacitly encourages
Bangladesh Army
and Muslim settlers to rape indigenous girls and women as tool to expel them from their traditional land. As a result thousands of indigenous girls and women were raped by the armed forces and settlers since independence of Bangladesh in 1971.
[128]
Bangladeshi Army in league with the Muslim settlers raid indigenous villages, separate men from women and rape indigenous girls and women. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers often rape indigenous girls and women in front of their husbands and parents. Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers also target indigenous girls and women when they go to markets, schools or go to fetch water or fire wood.
Land Grab
[
edit
]
Since vast majority of the indigenous people are farmers and cultivators, land is very important and only means of survival. The government's sponsored settlement in the
CHT
dispossessed many indigenous people of their lands.
[129]
Often
Bangladesh Army
expels indigenous people from their villages by massacres, arsons and constant harassments. Bangladeshi Army then give emptied villages to the Muslim settlers. In many cases Bangladesh Army builds settlements near indigenous villages. The Muslim settlers then gradually encroach on the lands of indigenous Buddhist people.
Another way to grab indigenous land is to build military camps on indigenous land with little or no compensation and then constantly harass the indigenous people by intimidation, extortion, interrogation, rape which forces indigenous people to leave their villages.
During the
2012 Ramu violence
a 25,000-strong mob set fire to at least five temples and dozens of homes throughout the town and surrounding villages after seeing a picture of an allegedly desecrated Quran, which they claimed had been posted on
Facebook
by Uttam Barua, a local Buddhist man.
[130]
[131]
India
[
edit
]
The
Ladakh Buddhist Association
has said: "There is a deliberate and organised design to convert Kargil's Buddhists to Islam. In the last four years, about 50 girls and married women with children were taken and converted from village Wakha alone. If this continues unchecked, we fear that Buddhists will be wiped out from Kargil in the next two decades or so. Anyone objecting to such allurement and conversions is harassed."
[132]
[133]
The
Mahabodhi Temple
, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
, is one of the most sacred
Buddhist
temple in
Bodh Gaya
, marking the location where
Gautama Buddha
is said to have attained
Enlightenment
.
[134]
On 7 July 2013, a series of ten bombs exploded in and around the Mahabodhi Temple complex. Five people, including two Buddhist monks, were injured by the blasts. Three other devices were defused by bomb-disposal squads at a number of locations in
Gaya
.
[135]
[136]
On 4 November 2013, the
National Investigation Agency
announced that the
Islamic terrorist
group
Indian Mujahideen
was responsible for the bombings.
[137]
[138]
Maldives
[
edit
]
The destruction of the Buddhist artifacts by Islamists took place on the day in which Mohamed Nasheed was toppled as president in a coup.
[139]
Buddhist antiquities were obliterated by Islamist radicals in the National Museum.
[140]
The Museum was stormed by Islamists who destroyed the Buddhist artifacts.
[141]
[142]
The non Muslim artifacts of Buddhist provenance were specifically singled out by the attackers.
[143]
The destruction was caught on camera.
[144]
Most of Maldive's Buddhist physical history was obliterated.
[145]
Hindu artifacts were also targeted for obliteration and the actions have been compared to the attacks on the Buddhas of Bamiyan by the Taliban.
[146]
[147]
[148]
7 February 2012 was the date of the anti-Buddhist attack by the Islamists.
[149]
Myanmar
[
edit
]
The violence and long lasting tension was reignited on 28 May 2012. It was reported that daughter of U Hla Tin, of Thabyechaung Village named Ma Thida Htwe aged 27 was violently raped then murdered by three Muslims. These men were later arrested.
[150]
[151]
Tensions between Buddhist and Muslim ethnic groups flared into
violent clashes
in
Meiktila
,
Mandalay Division
in 2013. The violence started on 20 March after a Muslim gold shop owner, his wife, and two Muslim employees assaulted a Buddhist customer and her husband in an argument over a golden hairpin. A large Buddhist mob formed and began to destroy the shop. The heavily outnumbered police reportedly told the mob to disperse after they had destroyed the shop.
[152]
[153]
On the same day, a local Buddhist monk passing on the back of a motorbike was attacked by four Muslims. According to witnesses, the driver was attacked with a sword, causing him to crash, while the monk was also hit in the head with the sword. Per a witness, one of the men doused the monk with fuel and burnt him alive. The monk died in the hospital.
[153]
The killing of the monk caused the relatively contained situation to explode, greatly increasing intensity and violence.
[152]
Thailand
[
edit
]
Primarily Thai central government has been involved in a civil war with
Muslim
insurgents in Thailand's three southernmost Muslim-majority provinces of Yala,
Narathiwat
and
Pattani
. There are quite a number of cases of Buddhist civilians in these regions that have been
beheaded
by Muslim insurgents,
[154]
Buddhist monks and Buddhist school teachers are frequently threatened with death and murdered.
[155]
[156]
Shootings of
Buddhists
are quite frequent in the South,
[157]
[158]
as are bombings,
[159]
[160]
and attacks on Buddhist temples.
[161]
Xinjiang
[
edit
]
During the
Kumul Rebellion
in Xinjiang in the 1930s, Buddhist murals were deliberately vandalized by Muslims.
[162]
Buddhist murals at the
Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves
were damaged by local Muslim population whose religion
proscribed figurative images
of sentient beings, the eyes and mouths in particular were often gouged out. Pieces of murals were also broken off for use as fertilizer by the locals.
[163]
Uyghur Muslim opposition to a Buddhist Aspara statue in Urumqi in Xinjiang was cited as a possible reason for its destruction in 2012.
[164]
[165]
A Muslim Kazakh viewed a giant Buddha statue near Urumqi as "alien cultural symbols".
[166]
Indonesia
[
edit
]
Nine bombs were detonated at the
Borobudur Buddhist temple
located in
Central Java
on 21 January 1985, causing nine
stupas
on upper rounded terraces of Arupadhatu to be badly damaged and there were no human casualties in this attack.
[167]
A Buddhist monastery in Jakarta was attacked by suspected local Islamic militants on 4 August 2013 at 6:53 p.m. Three people were injured in this attack.
[168]
In the village of Kebon Baru (
Banten
), an Islamic group forced a Buddhist monk, Mulyanto Nurhalim to sign an agreement to force him to abandon his home and wrongfully accused him of religious proselytism.
[169]
On 29 July 2016, several Buddhist vihara were plundered and burnt down by Muslim mobs in Tanjung Balai of North Sumatra.
[170]
On 26 November 2016, a homemade bomb was discovered in front of Vihara Buddha Tirta, a Buddhist temple in Lhok Seumawe of Aceh.
[171]
Persecution by Christians
[
edit
]
India
[
edit
]
The
National Socialist Council of Nagaland
has been accused of demanding money and food from Buddhists living along the Assam-Arunachal border. It has also been accused by Buddhists of forcing locals to convert to
Christianity
. The NSCN is also suspected of burning down the Rangphra temple in
Arunachal Pradesh
.
[172]
The
National Liberation Front of Tripura
has shut down and attacked Hindu and Buddhist orphanages, hospitals, temples and schools in
Tripura
.
[173]
[174]
They have also been falsely accused of force converting Buddhists to Christianity.
[175]
A mass scale ethnic riot was initiated by the Baptist Church in Tripura in 1980 by which both
Hindu
and
Buddhist
tribes faced systematic ethnic cleansing. Thousands of women were kidnapped and then raped and even forced to convert to Christianity. Reports state that the terrorists received aid from international Christian groups. The Christian tribals also received aid from the
NLFT
.
[176]
This was the state's worst ethnic riot.
[177]
Japan
[
edit
]
In
Sengoku period
Japan, as several
daimyos
and their subjects converted to
Christianity
via the efforts of
Jesuit
missionaries, the destruction of Buddhist and Shinto temples and shrines would often accompany it, with the Jesuits also contributing to the destruction and persecutions.
[178]
[179]
Buddhist monks would face persecution by being forcefully evicted out of the temples which would then be reused as churches.
[180]
Christian daimyos would also force Buddhist monks to marry.
[178]
Additionally, Buddhist relics hidden by monks would be sought out and destroyed.
[179]
The Jesuit missionaries were intolerant of Shintoism and Buddhism, considering them as idol-worship propagated by the devil.
[179]
Christian converts believed that Shinto and Buddhist deities were evil spirits whose influence could be eliminated via the destruction of their religious sites.
[178]
In the religious history of Japan, efforts to eliminate native or localized religions like Buddhism and Shinto by force and replace them with a different creed altogether was a phenomenon never experienced before in Japan. The disregard on the part of Christians towards the religious pluralism found in Japanese spirituality was similarly seen as foreign. The destruction of religious sites by Christians even in peacetime and as a purely religious act was also seen as unparalleled by the Japanese authorities.
[178]
This along with other more political factors eventually led the Japanese authorities to release an edict forbidding the practice of Christianity in the nation, with a 1587 edict by
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
stating "Japan is the land of the Gods and so it is undesirable that evil doctrines from Christian lands be propagated. To approach the inhabitants of our lands, make them into followers and destroy shrines and temples is unprecedented behavior."
[178]
South Korea
[
edit
]
There was also a series of Buddhist temple burnings in the 1980s and 1990s, and attacks on Buddhist artwork have continued. In one instance, a Protestant minister used a microphone on a cord as a bolo weapon and smashed temple paintings and a statue. In other instances, red crosses have been painted on temple walls, murals, and statues. Buddha statues have also been decapitated. Furthermore, students at Buddhist universities report aggressive attempts by Christians to convert them on campus, especially near campus temples.
[181]
Some
South Korean
Buddhists have denounced what they view as discriminatory measures against them and their religion by the administration of President
Lee Myung-bak
, which they attribute to Lee's membership in the
Somang Presbyterian Church
in
Seoul
.
[182]
Of particular note was after Lee Myung-bak's ascendence to the Presidency when the high proportion of Christians in relation to Buddhists in the public sector became known?particularly the president's cabinet, where there were twelve Christians to only one Buddhist.
[183]
The Buddhist
Jogye
Order has accused the Lee government of discriminating against Buddhism and favoring Christianity by ignoring certain Buddhist temples but including Christian churches in certain public documents.
[182]
In 2006, according to the
Asia Times
, "Lee also sent a video prayer message to a Christian rally held in the southern city of Busan in which the worship leader prayed feverishly: 'Lord, let the Buddhist temples in this country crumble down!
'
"
[184]
Further, according to an article in
Buddhist-Christian Studies
: "Over the course of the last decade [1990s] a fairly large number of Buddhist temples in South Korea have been destroyed or damaged by fire by misguided Christian fundamentalists. More recently, Buddhist statues have been identified as idols, and attacked and decapitated in the name of
Jesus
. Arrests are hard to effect, as the arsonists and vandals work by stealth of night." A 2008 incident in which police investigated protesters who had been given sanctuary in the Jogye temple in Seoul and searched a car driven by Jigwan, executive chief of the Jogye order, led to protests by Buddhists who claimed that police had treated Jigwan as a criminal.
[182]
In March 2009, in an effort to reach out to Buddhists affected by recent events, the President and First Lady participated in a Korean Buddhist conference where he and his wife were seen
joining palms
in prayer during chanting along with participants.
[185]
The discomfort among the Buddhists has gradually decreased since then.
[186]
[187]
Sri Lanka
[
edit
]
In 1815, the
British Army
captured the
Kingdom of Kandy
and deposed the Sinhalese monarch, ending a line of
Sinhalese Buddhist kings
which lasted for over 2300 years. The
British
would rule over the island of Sri Lanka until 1948. Like the Dutch, the British refused to register unbaptized infants or accept non-Christian marriages. Christians were openly favored for jobs and promotions.
[188]
The British also supported various Christian missionary groups to established Christian schools on the island. Education in these Christian schools (which disparaged Buddhism) was a requirement to serve in a government office. Missionaries also wrote tracts in Sinhalese attacking Buddhism and promoting Christianity.
[189]
Robert Inglis
, a 19th-century British Conservative, likened Buddhism to "
idolatry
" during a parliamentary debate in 1852 over the relationship of "Buddhist priests" to the British colonial government.
[190]
In the 19th century, a national Buddhist revival movement began as a response to Christian proselytization and suppression, and was empowered by the results of a
Panadura
debate between Christian priests and Buddhist monks such as
Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera
and
Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera
, which was widely seen as a victory for the Buddhists.
[191]
United States
[
edit
]
In February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed into law
Executive Order 9066
. This gave the military discretion to do whatever it deemed necessary to secure the safety and security of the
United States
. "The
Army
removed all persons of Japanese ancestry?more than 110,000 men, women, and children?from the west coast and put them in camps surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers. Anyone with even a drop of Japanese blood was rounded up and incarcerated".
[192]
The wartime incarceration, which the religion played in the evaluation of whether or not they could be considered fully American because the vast majority of them were
Buddhists
. In Hawaiian Islands, the authorities were particularly anxious to remove leaders of the religious community. Four days prior to the
Attack on Pearl Harbor
, 347 Japanese individuals were arrested and the majority of Buddhist leaders in the initial roundup were not simply a panicked reaction to a sudden military emergency, but the enactment of an already considered contingency plan. The Army also gave preferential treatment to
Christians
, despite the tens of thousands of Japanese-American Buddhists who served in the armed services during
World War II
in both the Pacific and European theaters.
[193]
In 2020,
Christian fundamentalists
vandalized six Buddhist temples amid growing
anti-Asian violence
.
[194]
The following year, a Buddhist temple in
Los Angeles
was burned and suffered other damages, including a broken glass door and a knocked down
lantern
.
[195]
Vietnam
[
edit
]
As early as 1953 rumoured allegations had surfaced of discrimination against Buddhists in Vietnam. These allegations stated that Catholic Vietnamese armed by the French had been raiding villages. By 1961, the shelling of
pagodas
in Vietnam was being reported in the Australian and American media.
[196]
After the
Catholic
Ngo đinh Di?m
came to power in
South Vietnam
, backed by the United States, he favoured his relatives and fellow Catholics over Buddhists and dedicated the country to the Virgin Mary in 1959. Though Buddhists made up 80% of Vietnam's population, Catholics were given high positions in the army and civil service. Half of the 123 National Assembly members were Catholic. Buddhists also required special government permits to hold large meetings, a stipulation generally made for meetings of trade unions.
[197]
In May 1963, the government forbade the flying of
Buddhist flags
on
Vesak
. After Buddhist protesters clashed with government troops, nine people were killed.
[197]
In protest, the Buddhist monk
Thich Qu?ng đ?c
burned himself to death in Saigon.
[198]
On 21 August, the
Xa L?i Pagoda raids
led to a death toll estimated in the hundreds.
Persecution in Sri Lanka
[
edit
]
In the Sri Lankan
Sinhalese
society, king
Rajasinha I of Sitawaka
reverted to Saiva Siddhantism
[199]
after a prolonged domination of
Theravada Buddhism
following the conversion of king
Devanampiya Tissa
.
King Rajasinha arranged the marriage of his Tamil minister Mannamperuma Mohottala to a sister of a junior queen known as the "iron daughter" He converted to Shaiva Siddhanta
[200]
He was reported to have settled
Brahmans
Adi Shaivas and
Tamil Shaivite Velalars
at significant
Buddhist
sites such as
Sri Pada
, etc. The
Velala Gurukkals
acted as religious mentors of the King and strengthened
Shaiva Siddhantism
at these centres. Under the advice of Mannamperuma Mohottala, he razed many Buddhist religious sites to the ground. Buddhism remained in decline thereafter until the formation of the
Siam Nikaya
and
Amarapura Nikaya
with the support of the Portuguese and
Dutch East India Company
respectively.
During the
1958 anti-Tamil pogrom
, Tamil rioters attacked the Sri Naga Vihara in
Jaffna
and the
Nagadeepa Purana Vihara
, completely destroying the latter.
[201]
Several Sinhalese witnesses testified to the Sansoni commission that there had been damage done to ancient Buddhist monuments and buildings in the
Trincomalee District
in the early 1970s. Justice
Miliani Sansoni
opined that the damage to ancient Buddhist sites in the
Northern
and
Eastern Provinces
was a cause of the
1977 riots
. During the riots, a Buddhist temple in
Kilinochchi
was burned by a Tamil mob as part of anti-Sinhalese rioting.
[202]
During the
Sri Lankan Civil War
, there had been a number of attacks by the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
and other
Tamil militant groups
at Buddhist sites such as the
Dalada Maligawa
, often involving the massacre of Sinhalese Buddhist civilians.
[203]
[204]
[205]
[206]
Sociologist Sasanka Perera remarked that, while the militants sought to destroy Buddhist sites to erase signs of Sinhalese heritage in their claimed territories, they were actually destroying their own heritage.
[207]
Persecution in Nepal
[
edit
]
The banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal was part of a Rana government campaign to suppress the resurgence of
Theravada Buddhism
in Nepal in the early decades of the 20th century.
[208]
There were two deportations of monks from Kathmandu, in 1926 and 1944.
[208]
[209]
[210]
[211]
The exiled monks were the first group of monks to be seen in Nepal since the 14th century. They were at the forefront of a movement to revive Theravada Buddhism which had disappeared from the country more than five hundred years ago. The
Rana
regime disapproved of Buddhism and
Nepal Bhasa
, the mother tongue of the
Newar
people. It saw the activities of the monks and their growing following as a threat. When police harassment and imprisonment failed to deter the monks, all of whom were Newars, they were deported.
[208]
[210]
Among the charges made against them were preaching a new faith, converting
Hindus
, encouraging women to renounce and thereby undermining family life and writing books in Nepal Bhasa.
[212]
[213]
Persecution under Communism
[
edit
]
Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge
[
edit
]
The
Khmer Rouge
, under its policy of
state atheism
,
[214]
actively imposed an atheistic agrarian revolution, resulting in the persecution of ethnic minorities and Buddhist monks during their reign from 1975 to 1979.
[215]
[216]
Buddhist institutions and temples were destroyed and Buddhist monks and teachers were killed in large numbers.
[217]
A third of the nation's
monasteries
were destroyed along with numerous holy texts and items of high artistic quality. 25,000 Buddhist monks were massacred by the regime.
[216]
Pol Pot
believed that Buddhism was a decadent affectation, and he sought to eliminate its 1,500-year-old mark on
Cambodia
,
[216]
while still maintaining the structures of the traditional Buddhist base.
[218]
China
[
edit
]
Since the
Chinese Communist Revolution
, Buddhism was severely restricted and brought under state-control at times.
[
citation needed
]
In addition, "
Marxist?Leninist atheism
has been widely publicized, resulting in steadily decreasing religious communities", especially in areas with developed economies. In 1989, less than 12% of the population held religious beliefs.
[219]
During the
Cultural Revolution
, Chinese Buddhists were actively persecuted and sent for re-education, while
Buddhist temples, statues, and sutras were vandalized and destroyed
by the
Red Guards
for many years due to
antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
. In recent years, Buddhism in China has been undergoing a revival but most Buddhist institutions are within the confines of the state.
[220]
Tibet
[
edit
]
Although many Buddhist temples and monasteries have been rebuilt after the
Cultural Revolution
, Tibetan Buddhists have largely been confined by the
Government of the People's Republic of China
.
[221]
Tibetan Buddhist monks and nuns have been reported, incarcerated, tortured, and killed by the
People's Liberation Army
, according to all human rights organizations.
[222]
There were over 6,000
Buddhist monasteries in Tibet
, and nearly all of them were ransacked and destroyed by the Chinese communists, mainly during the Cultural Revolution.
[223]
Analysis of a bulk of documents has shown that many Tibetan Buddhist monasteries were destroyed by the Chinese communists before the cultural revolution.
[224]
[
page needed
]
Moreover, the "
Chinese Communist Party
has launched a three-year drive to
promote atheism
in the Buddhist region of Tibet", with Xiao Huaiyuan, a leader in the
Chinese Communist Party Propaganda Department
in Tibet, stating that it would "help peasants and herdsmen free themselves from the negative influence of religion. Intensifying propaganda on atheism is especially important for Tibet because atheism plays an extremely important role in promoting economic construction, social advancement and socialist spiritual civilization in the region." He further said it would push "people of all ethnic groups in the region to raise their ideological and ethical quality, to learn a civilized and healthy life style and to strive to build a united, prosperous and civilized new Tibet."
[225]
Mongolia
[
edit
]
Buddhist monks were persecuted in
Mongolia
during communist rule up until
revolutionary
democratization
in 1990.
[226]
Khorloogiin Choibalsan
declared 17,000 of the monks to be enemies of the state and deported them to Siberian labor camps, where many perished. Almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries were looted or destroyed.
[227]
North Korea
[
edit
]
The Oxford Handbook of Atheism
states that "North Korea maintains a state-sanctioned and enforced atheism".
[228]
During the 1960s and 1970s, "North Korea effectively exterminated all signs of Buddhism" in the country.
[229]
Soviet Union
[
edit
]
Buddhism
was persecuted and looked down upon by the
Soviet
authorities under the government policy of
state atheism
.
[230]
Adherents were attacked by the authorities.
[231]
In 1929, the government of the USSR closed many
monasteries
and arrested
monks
, sending them into exile.
[230]
As government efforts brought
Sovietization
to
Buryatia
and
Kalmykia
, the clergy were reduced.
[232]
Vietnam
[
edit
]
Despite the communist regime's hostility, Buddhism is still widely practiced in
Vietnam
. According to
Human Rights News
, "Vietnam continues to systematically imprison and persecute independent Buddhists as well as followers of other religions."
[233]
The leaders of the
Unified Buddhist Congregation of Vietnam
,
Thich Huy?n Quang
and
Thich Qu?ng đ?
were imprisoned for decades.
Thich Nhat Hanh
has spoken out about the wiping out of his spiritual tradition in Vietnam.
[234]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
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The Party and State countered with the argument that Buddhist atheism had nothing to do with militant atheism, which was based on the Marxist-materialist interpretation of the laws of nature and society. The precise and binding outcome of this "new" attitude is to be found in the article on Buddhism in the second edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopaedia. This argued that the theory that Buddhism was an atheist religion or a philosophical system was totally untenable, and that it was an attempt by the ideologues of the exploiting class to gloss over the reactionary nature of Buddhism. In reality, Buddhism was no more than an instrument erected by the feudal lords to exploit the working masses. However, since ideological means did not prove all that effective in the struggle against Buddhism, administrative measures were adopted and implemented at the same time. As early as 1928, heavy taxes were imposed upon the monasteries (which were maintained by the population). In 1929, many monasteries were forcibly closed and many monks arrested and sent into exile. In 1934 even Agvan Dordzhiev was exiled to Leningrad. He was arrested there in 1937 and transferred to a prison in Ulan-Ude, where he died in 1938 (possibly as a result of torture)".
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Sources
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- Mey, Wolfgang, ed. (1984).
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- al-Bal?dhur?
(1924).
The Origins of the Islamic State
. Vol. Part II. Translated by Murgotten, Francis Clark. New York: Columbia University.
OCLC
6396175
.
- Dudink, Adrian (2000). "Nangong Shudu (1620), Poxie Ji (1640), and Western Reports on the Nanjing Persecution (1616/1617)".
Monumenta Serica
.
48
. Maney Publishing: 133?265.
doi
:
10.1080/02549948.2000.11731345
.
JSTOR
40727263
.
S2CID
192064160
.
- Elliot and Dowson (1867?1877).
The History of India as told by its own Historians
, London: Trubner. Reprint, New Delhi 1990.
- Majumdar, R. C. (ed.),
The History and Culture of the Indian People
, Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.
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Political or
religious
figures
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Military
figures
| |
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Journalists
| |
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Related
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