Head of the Catholic Church from 1555 to 1559
Pope Paul IV
(
Latin
:
Paulus IV
;
Italian
:
Paolo IV
; 28 June 1476 ? 18 August 1559), born
Gian Pietro Carafa
, was head of the
Catholic Church
and ruler of the
Papal States
from 23 May 1555 to his death, in August 1559.
[2]
[3]
While serving as papal
nuncio
in
Spain
, he developed an anti-Spanish outlook that later coloured his papacy. In response to an invasion of part of the Papal States by Spain during his papacy, he called for a French military intervention. After a defeat of the French and with Spanish troops at the edge of Rome, the Papacy and Spain reached a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal States and the Pope thereafter adopted a neutral stance between France and Spain.
[4]
Carafa was appointed
bishop of Chieti
, but resigned in 1524 in order to found with
Saint Cajetan
the Congregation of Clerics Regular (
Theatines
). Recalled to Rome, and made
Archbishop of Naples
, he worked to re-organize the
Inquisitorial system
in response to the emerging
Protestant
movement in Europe, any dialogue with which he opposed (the inquisition itself had been first instituted by
Pope Innocent III
who first regulated inquisitional procedure in the 13th century). Carafa was elected pope in 1555 through the influence of Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese
in the face of opposition from
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
. His papacy was characterized by strong nationalism in reaction to the influence of
Philip II of Spain
and the
Habsburgs
. The appointment of
Carlo Carafa
as
Cardinal Nephew
damaged the papacy further, and scandals forced Paul to remove him from office. He curbed some clerical abuses in Rome, but his methods were seen as harsh. He would introduce the first modern
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
or "Index of Prohibited Books" banning works he saw as in error. In spite of his advanced age, he was a tireless worker and issued new decrees and regulations daily, unrelenting in his determination to keep Protestants and recently immigrated
Marranos
from gaining influence in the Papal States. He had some hundred of the Marranos of Ancona thrown into prison; 50 were sentenced by the tribunal of the Inquisition and 25 of these were burned at the stake. Paul IV issued the
Papal bull
Cum nimis absurdum
, which confined Jews in Rome to the neighbourhood
claustro degli Ebrei
("enclosure of the Hebrews"), later known as the
Roman Ghetto
. He died highly unpopular, to the point that his family rushed his burial to make sure his body would not be desecrated by a popular uprising.
Early life
[
edit
]
Gian Pietro Carafa was born in
Capriglia Irpina
, near
Avellino
, into the prominent
Carafa
family of
Naples
.
[2]
His father Giovanni Antonio Carafa died in
West Flanders
in 1516 and his mother Vittoria Camponeschi was the daughter of Pietro Lalle Camponeschi, 5th Conte di
Montorio
, a Neapolitan nobleman, and
Dona
Maria de Noronha, a
Portuguese
noblewoman of the House of
Pereira
.
[
citation needed
]
Church career
[
edit
]
Bishop
[
edit
]
He was mentored by Cardinal
Oliviero Carafa
, his relative, who resigned the
see of Chieti
(Latin
Theate
) in his favour. Under the direction of
Pope Leo X
, he was ambassador to
England
and then papal
nuncio
in
Spain
, where he conceived a violent detestation of Spanish rule that affected the policies of his later papacy.
[2]
In 1524,
Pope Clement VII
allowed Carafa to resign his
benefices
and join the
ascetic
and newly founded Congregation of Clerks Regular, popularly called the
Theatines
, after Carafa's
see
of
Theate.
Following the
sack of Rome
in 1527, the order moved to
Venice
. But Carafa was recalled to
Rome
by the reform-minded
Pope Paul III
(1534?49), to sit on a committee of reform of the papal court, an appointment that forecasted an end to a
humanist
papacy and a revival of
scholasticism
, as Carafa was a disciple of
Thomas Aquinas
.
[2]
Cardinal
[
edit
]
In December 1536 he was made
Cardinal-Priest
of
S. Pancrazio
and then
Archbishop
of
Naples
.
[5]
The
Regensburg Colloquy
in 1541 failed to achieve any measure of reconciliation between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, but instead saw a number of prominent Italians defect to the Protestant camp. In response, Carafa was able to persuade Pope Paul III to set up a
Roman Inquisition
, modelled on the
Spanish Inquisition
with himself as one of the Inquisitors-General. The
Papal Bull
was promulgated in 1542.
[6]
Election as pope
[
edit
]
He was a surprise choice as pope to succeed
Pope Marcellus II
(1555); his severe and unbending character combined with his advanced age and Italian patriotism meant under normal circumstances he would have declined the honor. He accepted apparently because
Emperor Charles V
was opposed to his accession.
[2]
Carafa, elected on 23 May 1555, took the name of "Paul IV" in honor of
Pope Paul III
who named him as a cardinal. He was
crowned
as pope on 26 May 1555 by the
protodeacon
. He formally took possession of the
Basilica of Saint John Lateran
on 28 October 1555.
Papacy
[
edit
]
As pope, Paul IV's nationalism was a driving force; he used the office to preserve some liberties in the face of fourfold foreign occupation. Like
Pope Paul III
, he was an enemy of the
Colonna family
. His treatment of
Giovanna d'Aragona
, who had married into that family, drew further negative comment from Venice because she had long been a patron of artists and writers.
[7]
Paul IV was displeased at the French signing a five-year truce with Spain in February 1556 (in the midst of the
Italian War of 1551?1559
) and urged King
Henry II of France
to join the Papal States in an invasion of
Spanish Naples
. On 1 September 1556, King Philip II responded by preemptively invading the Papal States with 12,000 men under the
Duke of Alba
. French forces approaching from the north were defeated and forced to withdraw at
Civitella del Tronto
in August 1557.
[8]
The Papal armies were left exposed and were defeated, with Spanish troops arriving at the edge of Rome. Out of fear of another sack of Rome, Paul IV agreed to the Duke of Alba's demand for the Papal States to declare neutrality by signing the Peace of Cave-Palestrina on 12 September 1557. Emperor Charles V criticized the peace agreement as being overly generous to the Pope.
[9]
As
cardinal-nephew
,
Carlo Carafa
became his uncle's chief political adviser. Having accepted a pension from the French, Cardinal Carafa worked to secure a French alliance.
[10]
Carlo's older brother
Giovanni
was made commander of the Papal forces and
Duke of Paliano
after the pro-Spanish
Colonna
were deprived of that town in 1556. Another nephew,
Antonio
, was given command of the Papal guard and made Marquis of Montebello. Their conduct became notorious in Rome. However, at the conclusion of the disastrous war with Philip II of Spain in the Italian War, and after many scandals, Paul IV publicly disgraced his nephews and banished them from Rome in 1559.
[10]
With the
Protestant Reformation
, the papacy required all Roman Catholic rulers to consider
Protestant
rulers as
heretics
, thus making their realms illegitimate. At the time of Paul's election, Queen
Mary I of England
was two years into her reign, and was rolling back the
English Reformation
that had occurred under her half-brother
Edward VI
. Paul IV issued a
papal bull
in 1555,
Ilius, per quem Reges regnant
, removing all Church measures against the English government, and further recognising Mary and her husband Philip as
King and Queen of Ireland
, rather than merely being "
lord
".
[11]
Despite the bull, his relations with England were not positive. Paul IV had known Cardinal
Reginald Pole
while Pole was living in Italy and the two had been members of the
spirituali
together. Pole was the leader of Mary's efforts, but Paul IV seems to have hated Pole and become convinced he was a crypto-Protestant. Combined with hostility towards Spain and thus Mary's husband, Paul IV refused to allow any English bishops to be appointed, and began inquisitorial discipline proceedings against Pole, leading to the "farcical" situation that by 1558, the most serious opponent of English Catholicism was the Pope himself.
[12]
He also angered people in England by insisting on the restitution of property confiscated during the
dissolution of the monasteries
. After Mary's death, he rejected the succession of
Elizabeth I of England
to the throne.
[2]
Paul IV was violently opposed to the liberal Cardinal
Giovanni Morone
, whom he strongly suspected of being a hidden Protestant, so much that he had him imprisoned. In order to prevent Morone from succeeding him and imposing what he believed to be his Protestant beliefs on the Church, Pope Paul IV codified the Catholic Law excluding heretics and non-Catholics from receiving or legitimately becoming pope, in the bull
Cum ex apostolatus officio
.
[
citation needed
]
Paul IV was rigidly orthodox, austere in life, and authoritarian in manner. He affirmed the Catholic doctrine of
extra ecclesiam nulla salus
('outside the Church there is no salvation'), and used the
Holy Office
to suppress the
Spirituali
, a Catholic group deemed heretical. The strengthening of the Inquisition continued under Paul IV, and few could consider themselves safe by virtue of position in his drive to reform the Church; even cardinals he disliked could be imprisoned.
[13]
He appointed inquisitor Michele Ghislieri, the future
Pope Pius V
, to the position of Supreme Inquisitor despite the fact as Inquisitor of
Como
, Ghislieri's persecutions had inspired a citywide rebellion, forcing him to flee in fear for his life.
[14]
Vicolo Capocciuto, Roman Ghetto by Franz Roesler c.1880
On 17 July 1555, Paul IV issued one of the most infamous papal bulls in Church history. The
bull
,
Cum nimis absurdum
, ordered the creation of a
Jewish ghetto in Rome
. The Pope set its borders near the
Rione Sant'Angelo
, an area where large numbers of Jews already resided, and ordered it walled off from the rest of the city. A single gate, locked every day at sundown, was the only means of reaching the rest of the city. The Jews themselves were forced to pay all design and construction costs related to the project, which came to a total of roughly 300
scudi
. The bull restricted Jews in other ways as well. They were forbidden to have more than one
synagogue
per city?leading, in Rome alone, to the destruction of seven "excess" places of worship. All Jews were forced to wear distinctive yellow
hats
, especially outside the ghetto, and they were forbidden to trade in everything but food and secondhand clothes.
[15]
Christians of all ages were encouraged to treat the Jews as second-class citizens; for a Jew to defy a Christian in any way was to invite severe punishment, often at the hands of a mob. By the end of Paul IV's five-year reign, the number of Roman Jews had dropped by half.
[14]
Yet his anti-Jewish legacy endured for over 300 years: the ghetto he established ceased to exist only with the dissolution of the
Papal States
in 1870. Its walls were torn down in 1888.
[
citation needed
]
According to
Leopold von Ranke
, a rigid austerity and an earnest zeal for the restoration of primitive habits became the dominant tendency of his papacy. Monks who had left their monasteries were expelled from the city and from the Papal States. He would no longer tolerate the practice by which one man had been allowed to enjoy the revenues of an office while delegating its duties to another.
[16]
All begging was forbidden. Even the collection of alms for Masses, which had previously been made by the clergy, was discontinued. A medal was struck representing
Christ driving the money changers
from the
Temple
. Paul IV put in place a reform of the papal administration designed to stamp out trafficking of principal positions in the Curia.
[10]
All secular offices, from the highest to the lowest, were assigned to others based on merit. Important economies were made, and taxes were proportionately remitted. Paul IV established a chest, of which only he held the key, for the purpose of receiving all complaints that anyone desired to make.
[16]
During his papacy, censorship reached new heights.
Among his first acts as pope was to cut off
Michelangelo
's pension, and he ordered the nudes of
The Last Judgment
in the
Sistine Chapel
be painted more modestly (a request that Michelangelo ignored) (the beginning of the Vatican's
Fig leaf
campaign). Paul IV also introduced the
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
or "Index of Prohibited Books" to
Venice
, then an independent and prosperous trading state, in order to crack down on the growing threat of Protestantism. Under his authority, all books written by Protestants were banned, together with Italian and German translations of the Latin Bible.
[18]
In the Papal States, a
Marrano
presence was noticeable. In Rome and, even more so, the seaport of
Ancona
, they thrived under benevolent popes Clement VII (1523?34), Paul III (1534?49), and Julius III (1550?55). They even received a guarantee that if accused of
apostasy
they would be subject only to papal authority. But Paul IV (1555?59), the voice of the Counter-Reformation, dealt them an irreparable blow when he withdrew the protections previously given and initiated a campaign against them. As a result of this, 25 were burned at the stake in the spring of 1556.
[
citation needed
]
Consistories
[
edit
]
Throughout his pontificate, Paul IV named 46 cardinals in four consistories, including Michele Ghislieri (the future
Pope Pius V
). According to Robert Maryks, the pope decided to nominate the
Jesuit
priest
Diego Laynez
to the cardinalate. However, Father
Alfonso Salmeron
warned
Saint Ignatius of Loyola
of this, as did Cardinal
Otto Truchsess von Waldburg
. In response, Father
Pedro de Ribadeneira
repeated what the saint had said to him: "If our Lord does not lay down his hand, we will have Master Lainez a cardinal, but I certify to you, if it were, that it be with so much noise that the world would understand how the Society accepts these things".
[19]
Death
[
edit
]
Paul IV's health began to break down in May 1559. He rallied in July, holding public audiences and attending meetings of the Inquisition. But he engaged in fasting, and the heat of the summer wore him down again. He was bedridden, and on 17 August it became clear he would not live. Cardinals and other officials gathered at his bedside on 18 August, where Paul IV asked them to elect a "righteous and holy" successor and to retain the Inquisition as "the very basis" of the Catholic Church's power. By 2 or 3 pm, he was close to death, and died at 5 pm.
[20]
The people of Rome did not forget what they had suffered because of the war he had brought on the State. Crowds of people gathered at the
Piazza del Campidoglio
and began rioting even before Paul IV died.
[21]
His statue, erected before the Campidoglio just months before, had a yellow hat placed on it (similar to the yellow hat Paul IV had forced Jews to wear in public). After a mock trial, the statue was decapitated.
[21]
It was then thrown into the
Tiber
.
[22]
The crowd broke into the three city jails and freed more than 400 prisoners, then broke into the offices of the Inquisition at the Palazzo dell' Inquisizone near to the
Church of San Rocco
. They murdered the Inquisitor, Tommaso Scotti, and freed 72 prisoners. One of those released was Dominican
John Craig
, who later was a colleague of
John Knox
. The people ransacked the palace, and then set it afire (destroying the Inquisition's records).
[20]
That same day, or the next day (records are unclear), the crowd attacked the Church of
Santa Maria sopra Minerva
. The intercession of some local nobility dissuaded them from burning it and killing all those within.
[23]
On the third day of rioting, the crowd removed the Carafa family coat of arms from all churches, monuments, and other buildings in the city.
[22]
The crowd dedicated to him the following
pasquinata
:
[24]
- Carafa hated by the devil and the sky
- is buried here with his rotting corpse,
- Erebus
has taken the spirit;
- he hated peace on earth, our faith he contested.
- he ruined the church and the people, men and sky offended;
- treacherous friend, suppliant with the army which was fatal to him.
- You want to know more? Pope was him and that is enough.
Such hostile views have not mellowed much with time; modern historians tend to view his papacy as an especially poor one. His policies stemmed from personal prejudices?against Spain, for example, or the Jews?rather than any overarching political or religious goals. In a time of precarious balance between Catholic and Protestant, his adversarial nature did little to slow the latter's spread across northern Europe. His anti-Spanish feelings alienated the Habsburgs, arguably the most powerful Catholic rulers in Europe, and his ascetic personal beliefs left him out of touch with the artistic and intellectual movements of his era (he often spoke of whitewashing the
Sistine Chapel ceiling
). Such a reactionary attitude alienated clergy and laity alike: historian
John Julius Norwich
calls him "the worst pope of the 16th century."
[14]
Four or five hours after his death, Paul IV's body was taken to the
Cappella Paolina
in the
Apostolic Palace
. It
lay in repose
, and a choir sang the
Office of the Dead
on the morning of 19 August. Cardinals and many others then paid homage to Paul IV ("kissed the feet of the pope"). The
canons
of
St. Peter's Basilica
refused to take his body into the basilica unless they were paid the customary money and gifts. Instead, the canons sang the usual
office
in the Cappella del Santissimo Sacramento (Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament). Paul IV's body was taken to the
Sistine Chapel
in the Apostolic Palace at 6 pm.
[22]
Paul IV's nephew,
Cardinal-nephew
Carlo Carafa
, arrived in Rome late on 19 August. Worried that the rioters might break in and desecrate the pope's corpse, at 10 pm Cardinal Carafa had Pope Paul IV buried without ceremony next to the Cappella del Volto Santo (Chapel of the Holy Face) in St. Peter's. His remains stayed there until October 1566, when his successor as pope, Pius V, had them transferred to Santa Maria sopra Minerva. In the chapel founded by Paul IV's uncle and mentor, Cardinal
Oliviero Carafa
, a tomb was created by
Pirro Ligorio
and Paul IV's remains were placed therein.
[22]
In fiction
[
edit
]
Paul IV's title in the
Prophecy of St. Malachy
is "Of the Faith of Peter".
[25]
As Paul IV, appears as a character in
John Webster
's Jacobean revenge drama
The White Devil
(1612).
[26]
In the novel
Q
by
Luther Blissett
, while not appearing himself, Gian Pietro Carafa is mentioned repeatedly as the cardinal whose spy and
agent provocateur
, Qoelet, causes many of the disasters to befall Protestants during the Reformation and the Roman Church's response in the 16th century.
[27]
Alison MacLeod's 1968 historical novel "The Hireling" depicts Cardinal Carafa befriending the English Cardinal
Reginald Pole
during Pole's long exile in Italy, their later falling out, and Pole's feelings of betrayal after Carafa, once elevated to the Papacy, charges him with heresy at the very time when Pole was striving to return England to the Catholic fold.
[
citation needed
]
Pope Paul IV is a major villain in
Sholem Asch
's 1921 historical novel
The Witch of Castile
(Yiddish:
Di Kishufmakherin fun Kastilien
, Hebrew:
Ha'Machshepha Mi'Castilia
?????? ????????). The book's depiction of a young Sephardi Jewish woman in Rome being falsely accused of witchcraft and being burned at the stake, dying as a Jewish martyr, is placed in the context of Paul IV's actual persecution of the Jews.
[
citation needed
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)"
.
www.gcatholic.org
. Retrieved
12 May
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Loughlin, James F. (1911).
"Pope Paul IV"
. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
Catholic Encyclopedia
. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911).
"Paul (popes)"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 956.
- ^
(Firm), John Murray (1908).
"Handbook for Rome and the Campagna"
.
- ^
"Britannica"
. 14 August 2023.
- ^
MacCulloch, Dairmaid.
Reformation : Europe's house divided, 1490-1700
, London, 2003, page 224.
- ^
Robin, Larsen and Levin.
Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance
. p. 24.
- ^
Woodward, Geoffrey (2013). "8".
Philip II
. London, New York: Routledge.
ISBN
978-1317897736
.
- ^
Pattenden, Miles (2013).
Pius IV and the Fall of The Carafa: Nepotism and Papal Authority in Counter-Reformation Rome
. OUP Oxford. pp. 21?22.
ISBN
978-0191649615
.
- ^
a
b
c
"John, Eric.
The Popes
, Hawthorne Books, New York"
. Archived from
the original
on 2 February 2017
. Retrieved
19 February
2016
.
- ^
"Crown of Ireland Act 1542"
.
Heraldica
. 25 July 2003
. Retrieved
1 November
2012
.
- ^
Ryrie, Alec
(23 September 2020).
"England's Catholic Reformation"
.
See
transcript
, or 46:55 in the video.
- ^
Will Durant (1953).
The Renaissance
. Chapter XXXIX: The Popes and the Council: 1517?1565.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location (
link
) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
a
b
c
Norwich, John Julius (2011).
Absolute Monarchs
. New York: Random House. p. 316.
ISBN
978-1-4000-6715-2
.
- ^
Coppa, Frank J. (2006).
The Papacy, the Jews, and the Holocaust
. Washington: Catholic University of America Press. p. 29.
ISBN
9780813215952
.
- ^
a
b
"Wines, Roger.
Leopold von Ranke: The Secret of World History
, (1981)"
. Archived from
the original
on 18 August 2017
. Retrieved
19 February
2016
.
- ^
"Remaking the world | Christian History Magazine"
.
Christian History Institute
. Retrieved
10 May
2023
.
- ^
Salvador Miranda.
"Pius IV (1555-1559)"
. The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
. Retrieved
10 March
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Setton, Kenneth M. (1984).
The Papacy and the Levant, 1204?1571. Volume IV: The Sixteenth Century
. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. p. 718.
ISBN
978-0871691149
.
- ^
a
b
Stow, Kenneth (2001).
Theater of Acculturation: The Roman Ghetto in the 16th Century
. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 41.
ISBN
978-0295980256
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Setton, Kenneth M. (1984).
The Papacy and the Levant, 1204?1571. Volume IV: The Sixteenth Century
. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. p. 719.
ISBN
978-0871691149
.
- ^
Setton, Kenneth M. (1984).
The Papacy and the Levant, 1204?1571. Volume IV: The Sixteenth Century
. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. pp. 718?719.
ISBN
978-0871691149
.
- ^
Claudio Rendina,
I papi
, p. 646
- ^
"Prophecies of Future Popes"
.
The Month: An Illustrated Magazine of Literature, Science and Art
. June 1899. p. 572.
- ^
Rist, Thomas (2008).
Revenge Tragedy and the Drama of Commemoration in Reforming England
. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. p. 121.
ISBN
9780754661528
.
- ^
Garber, Jeremy (Winter 2006).
"Reading the Anabaptists: Anabaptist Historiography and Luther Blissett's 'Q'
"
.
The Conrad Grebel Review
.
24
(1). Archived from
the original
on 29 November 2014.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Aubert, Alberto.
Paolo IV. Politica, Inquisizione e storiografia
, Firenze, Le Lettere, 1999
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online
.
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Church History and Religious Culture
94.3 (2014): 316?336
online
.
- Deming, David (2012).
Science and technology in world history Vol. 3: The Black Death, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution
. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., Publishers.
ISBN
9780786490868
. Retrieved
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2015
.
- Fichtner, Paula Sutter. “The Disobedience of the Obedient: Ferdinand I and the Papacy 1555-1564.” The Sixteenth Century Journal 11, no. 2 (1980): 25?34.
online
.
- Firpo, Massimo.
Inquisizione romana e Controriforma. Studi sul cardinal Giovanni Morone (1509?1580) e il suo processo d'eresia
, Brescia, Morcelliana, 2005
- Gleason, Elisabeth G. “Who Was the First Counter-Reformation Pope?” The Catholic Historical Review 81, no. 2 (1995): 173?84.
online
.
- Mampieri, Martina. "From Paul IV 'the Evil' to Pius IV 'the Merciful
'
". in
Living under the Evil Pope
(Brill, 2019). 160?204.
- Mathews, Shailer. "The Social Teaching of Paul. IV. The Messianism of Paul".
Biblical World
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online
.
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online
.
- Pattenden, Miles.
Pius IV and the Fall of the Carafa: Nepotism and Papal Authority in Counter-Reformation Rome
(Oxford UP, 2013).
- Pocock, Nicholas, Marinus Marinius, and J. Barengus. "Bull of Paul IV concerning the Bishopric of Bristol".
English Historical Review
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JSTOR
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.
- Santosuosso, Antonio. "An Account of the Election of Paul IV to the Pontificate".
Renaissance Quarterly
31.4 (1978): 486?498.
JSTOR
2860374
.
External links
[
edit
]
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