Philosophy opposing war or violence
Pacifism
is the opposition or resistance to
war
,
militarism
(including
conscription
and mandatory military service) or
violence
. The word
pacifism
was coined by the French peace campaigner
Emile Arnaud
and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in
Glasgow
in 1901.
[1]
A related term is
ahimsa
(to do no harm), which is a core philosophy in
Indian religions
such as
Hinduism
,
Buddhism
, and
Jainism
. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, ancient references abound.
In modern times, interest was revived by
Leo Tolstoy
in his late works, particularly in
The Kingdom of God Is Within You
.
Mahatma Gandhi
propounded the practice of steadfast
nonviolent opposition
which he called "
satyagraha
", instrumental in its role in the
Indian Independence Movement
. Its effectiveness served as inspiration to
Martin Luther King Jr.
,
James Lawson
,
Mary and Charles Beard
,
James Bevel
,
[2]
Thich Nhat Hanh
,
[3]
and many others in the
civil rights movement
.
Definition
[
edit
]
Pacifism covers a spectrum of views, including the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved, calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war, opposition to any organization of society through governmental force (
anarchist or libertarian pacifism
), rejection of the use of physical violence to obtain political, economic or social goals, the obliteration of force, and opposition to violence under any circumstance, even defence of self and others. Historians of pacifism
Peter Brock
and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism "in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas" as "an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare".
[4]
Philosopher
Jenny Teichman
defines the main form of pacifism as "anti-warism", the rejection of all forms of warfare.
[5]
Teichman's beliefs have been summarized by
Brian Orend
as "... A pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong." In a sense the philosophy is based on the idea that the ends do not justify the means.
[6]
The word
pacific
denotes conciliatory.
[7]
Moral considerations
[
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]
Pacifism may be based on
moral
principles (a
deontological
view) or
pragmatism
(a
consequentialist
view). Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.
Nonviolence
[
edit
]
Some pacifists follow principles of
nonviolence
, believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or most effective. Some however, support physical violence for emergency defence of self or others. Others support
destruction of property
in such emergencies or for conducting symbolic acts of resistance like pouring red paint to represent blood on the outside of military recruiting offices or entering air force bases and hammering on military aircraft.
Not all
nonviolent resistance
(sometimes also called
civil resistance
) is based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists. Sometimes, as with the civil rights movement's march from
Selma to Montgomery
in 1965, they have called for armed protection. The interconnections between civil resistance and factors of force are numerous and complex.
[8]
Types
[
edit
]
Absolute pacifism
[
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]
An absolute pacifist is generally described by the
BBC
as one who believes that human life is so valuable, that a human should never be killed and war should never be conducted, even in self-defense (except for non-violence type). The principle is described as difficult to abide by consistently, due to violence not being available as a tool to aid a person who is being harmed or killed. It is further claimed that such a pacifist could logically argue that violence leads to more undesirable results than non-violence.
[9]
Conditional pacifism
[
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]
Tapping into
just war theory
conditional pacifism
represents a spectrum of positions departing from positions of absolute pacifism. One such conditional pacifism is the common
pacificism
, which may allow defense but is not advocating a default
defensivism
[10]
or even
interventionism
.
Police actions and national liberation
[
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]
Although all pacifists are opposed to war between
nation states
, there have been occasions where pacifists have supported military conflict in the case of
civil war
or
revolution
.
[11]
For instance, during the
American Civil War
, both the
American Peace Society
and some former members of the
Non-Resistance Society
supported the
Union
's military campaign, arguing they were carrying out a "
police action
" against the
Confederacy
, whose act of
Secession
they regarded as criminal.
[11]
[12]
Following the outbreak of the
Spanish Civil War
, French pacifist
Rene Gerin
urged support for the
Spanish Republic
.
[13]
Gerin argued that the
Spanish Nationalists
were "comparable to an individual enemy" and the Republic's war effort was equivalent to the action of a domestic police force suppressing crime.
[13]
In the 1960s, some pacifists associated with the
New Left
supported
wars of national liberation
and supported groups such as the
Viet Cong
and the Algerian
FLN
, arguing peaceful attempts to liberate such nations were no longer viable, and war was thus the only option.
[14]
History
[
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]
Early traditions
[
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]
Advocacy of pacifism can be found far back in history and literature.
China
[
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]
During the
Warring States period
, the pacifist
Mohist
School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states. They took this belief into action by using their famed defensive strategies to defend smaller states from invasion from larger states, hoping to dissuade feudal lords from costly warfare. The
Seven Military Classics
of ancient China view warfare negatively, and as a last resort. For example, the
Three Strategies of Huang Shigong
says: "As for the military, it is not an auspicious instrument; it is the way of heaven to despise it", and the
Wei Liaozi
writes: "As for the military, it is an inauspicious instrument; as for conflict and contention, it runs counter to virtue".
[15]
The Taoist scripture "
Classic of Great Peace
(
Taiping jing
)" foretells "the coming Age of Great Peace (
Taiping
)".
[16]
The
Taiping Jing
advocates "a world full of peace".
[17]
Lemba
[
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]
The
Lemba
religion of southern French Congo, along with its symbolic herb, is named for pacifism : "
lemba, lemba
" (peace, peace), describes the action of the plant
lemba-lemba
(
Brillantaisia patula T. Anders
).
[18]
Likewise in Cabinda, "
Lemba
is the spirit of peace, as its name indicates."
[19]
Moriori
[
edit
]
The
Moriori
, of the
Chatham Islands
, practiced pacifism by order of their ancestor
Nunuku-whenua
. This enabled the Moriori to preserve what limited resources they had in their harsh climate, avoiding waste through warfare. In turn, this led to their almost complete annihilation in 1835 by invading
Ng?ti Mutunga
and
Ng?ti Tama
M?ori
from the
Taranaki
region of the
North Island
of New Zealand. The invading M?ori killed, enslaved and
cannibalised
the Moriori. A Moriori survivor recalled : "[The Maori] commenced to kill us like sheep ... [We] were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed ? men, women and children indiscriminately."
[20]
Greece
[
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]
In
Ancient Greece
, pacifism seems not to have existed except as a broad moral guideline against violence between individuals. No philosophical program of rejecting violence between states, or rejecting all forms of violence, seems to have existed.
Aristophanes
, in his play
Lysistrata
, creates the scenario of an
Athenian
woman's anti-war sex strike during the
Peloponnesian War
of 431?404 BCE, and the play has gained an international reputation for its anti-war message. Nevertheless, it is both fictional and comical, and though it offers a pragmatic opposition to the destructiveness of war, its message seems to stem from frustration with the existing conflict (then in its twentieth year) rather than from a philosophical position against violence or war. Equally fictional is the nonviolent protest of
Hegetorides
of
Thasos
.
Euripides
also expressed strong anti-war ideas in his work, especially
The Trojan Women
.
[21]
In
Plato's Republic
Socrates makes the pacifistic argument that a just person would not harm anyone.
[22]
In
Plato
's earlier work
Crito
Socrates asserts that it is not moral to return evil with further evil, an original moral conception, according to
Gregory Vlastos
, that undermines all justifications for war and violence.
[23]
Roman Empire
[
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]
Several Roman writers rejected the militarism of Roman society and gave voice to anti-war sentiments,
[21]
including
Propertius
,
Tibullus
and
Ovid
.
[24]
The
Stoic
Seneca the Younger
criticised warfare in his book
Naturales quaestiones
(c. 65 CE).
[25]
Maximilian of Tebessa
was a Christian conscientious objector. He was killed for refusing to be conscripted.
[26]
Christianity
[
edit
]
Throughout history many have understood
Jesus
of Nazareth to have been a pacifist,
[27]
drawing on his
Sermon on the Mount
. In the sermon Jesus stated that one should "not resist an evildoer" and promoted his
turn the other cheek
philosophy. "If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also; and if anyone wants to sue you and take your coat, give your cloak as well ... Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you."
[28]
[29]
[30]
The New Testament story is of Jesus, besides preaching these words, surrendering himself freely to an enemy intent on having him killed and proscribing his followers from defending him.
There are those, however, who deny that Jesus was a pacifist
[27]
and state that Jesus never said not to fight,
[30]
citing examples from the New Testament. One such instance portrays an angry Jesus driving dishonest market
traders from the temple
.
[30]
A frequently quoted passage is Luke 22:36: "He said to them, 'But now, the one who has a purse must take it, and likewise a bag. And the one who has no sword must
sell his cloak and buy one
.'" Pacifists have typically explained that verse as Jesus fulfilling prophecy, since in the next verse, Jesus continues to say: "It is written: 'And he was numbered with the transgressors'; and I tell you that this must be fulfilled in me. Yes, what is written about me is reaching its fulfillment." Others have interpreted the non-pacifist statements in the New Testament to be related to
self-defense
or to be metaphorical and state that on no occasion did Jesus shed blood or urge others to shed blood.
[27]
Modern history
[
edit
]
Beginning in the 16th century, the
Protestant Reformation
gave rise to a variety of new Christian sects, including the
historic peace churches
. Foremost among them were the
Religious Society of Friends
(Quakers),
Amish
,
Mennonites
,
Hutterites
, and
Church of the Brethren
. The humanist writer
Desiderius Erasmus
was one of the most outspoken pacifists of the
Renaissance
, arguing strongly against warfare in his essays
The Praise of Folly
(1509) and
The Complaint of Peace
(1517).
[21]
[31]
The Quakers were prominent advocates of pacifism, who as early as 1660 had repudiated violence in all forms and adhered to a strictly pacifist interpretation of
Christianity
. They stated their beliefs in a declaration to
King Charles II
:
"We utterly deny all outward wars and strife, and fightings with outward weapons, for any end, or under any pretense whatever; this is our testimony to the whole world. The Spirit of Christ ... which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the kingdoms of this world.
[32]
Throughout the many 18th century wars in which
Great Britain
participated, the Quakers maintained a principled commitment
not to serve in the army and militia
or even to pay the alternative £10 fine.
The English Quaker
William Penn
, who founded the
Province of Pennsylvania
, employed an anti-militarist public policy. Unlike residents of many of the colonies, Quakers chose to trade peacefully with the Indians, including for land. The colonial province was, for the 75 years from 1681 to 1756, essentially unarmed and experienced little or no warfare in that period.
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of thinkers devised plans for an international organisation that would promote peace, and reduce or even eliminate the occurrence of war. These included the French politician
Duc de Sully
, the philosophers
Emeric Cruce
and the
Abbe de Saint-Pierre
, and the English Quakers William Penn and
John Bellers
.
[33]
[34]
Pacifist ideals emerged from two strands of thought that coalesced at the end of the 18th century. One, rooted in the secular
Enlightenment
, promoted peace as the rational antidote to the world's ills, while the other was a part of the
evangelical religious revival
that had played an important part in the campaign for the
abolition of slavery
. Representatives of the former included
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
, in
Extrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l'Abbe Saint-Pierre
(1756),
[35]
Immanuel Kant
, in his
Thoughts on Perpetual Peace
,
[36]
and
Jeremy Bentham
who proposed the formation of a peace association in 1789. Representative of the latter, was
William Wilberforce
who thought that strict limits should be imposed on British involvement in the
French Revolutionary Wars
based on Christian ideals of peace and brotherhood. Bohemian
Bernard Bolzano
taught about the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social, and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, pacifism was not entirely frowned upon throughout Europe. It was considered a political stance against costly capitalist-imperialist wars, a notion particularly popular in the
British Liberal Party
of the twentieth century.
[37]
However, during the eras of World War One and especially World War Two, public opinion on the ideology split. Those against the Second World War, some argued, were not fighting against unnecessary wars of imperialism but instead acquiescing to the fascists of Germany, Italy and Japan.
[38]
Peace movements
[
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]
During the period of the
Napoleonic Wars
, although no formal
peace movement
was established until the end of hostilities, a significant peace movement animated by universalist ideals did emerge, due to the perception of Britain fighting in a
reactionary
role and the increasingly visible impact of the war on the welfare of the nation in the form of higher taxation levels and high casualty rates. Sixteen peace petitions to
Parliament
were signed by members of the public, anti-war and anti-
Pitt
demonstrations convened and peace literature was widely published and disseminated.
[39]
The first peace movements appeared in 1815?16. In the United States the first such movement was the
New York Peace Society
, founded in 1815 by the theologian
David Low Dodge
, and the
Massachusetts Peace Society
. It became an active organization, holding regular weekly meetings, and producing literature which was spread as far as
Gibraltar
and Malta, describing the horrors of war and advocating pacificism on
Christian
grounds.
[40]
The
London Peace Society
(also known as the Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace) was formed in 1816 to promote permanent and universal peace by the
philanthropist
William Allen
. In the 1840s, British women formed "Olive Leaf Circles", groups of around 15 to 20 women, to discuss and promote pacifist ideas.
[41]
The peace movement began to grow in influence by the mid-nineteenth century.
[42]
The London Peace Society, under the initiative of American consul
Elihu Burritt
and the reverend
Henry Richard
, convened the first
International Peace Congress
in London in 1843.
[43]
The congress decided on two aims: the ideal of peaceable arbitration in the affairs of nations and the creation of an international institution to achieve that.
Richard
became the secretary of the Peace Society in 1850 on a full-time basis, a position which he would keep for the next 40 years, earning himself a reputation as the 'Apostle of Peace'. He helped secure one of the earliest victories for the peace movement by securing a commitment from the
Great Powers
in the
Treaty of Paris (1856)
at the end of the
Crimean War
, in favour of arbitration. On the European continent, wracked by
social upheaval
, the first peace congress was held in
Brussels
in 1848 followed by
Paris
a year later.
[44]
After experiencing a recession in support due to the resurgence of militarism during the
American Civil War
and
Crimean War
, the movement began to spread across Europe and began to infiltrate the new socialist movements. In 1870,
Randal Cremer
formed the
Workman's Peace Association
in London. Cremer, alongside the French economist
Frederic Passy
was also the founding father of the first international organisation for the arbitration of conflicts in 1889, the
Inter-Parliamentary Union
. The
National Peace Council
was founded in after the 17th
Universal Peace Congress
in London (July August 1908).
An important thinker who contributed to pacifist ideology was Russian writer
Leo Tolstoy
. In one of his latter works,
The Kingdom of God is Within You
, Tolstoy provides a detailed history, account and defense of pacifism. Tolstoy's work inspired a
movement named after him
advocating pacifism to arise in Russia and elsewhere.
[45]
The book was a major early influence on
Mahatma Gandhi
, and the two engaged in regular correspondence while Gandhi was active in South Africa.
[46]
Bertha von Suttner
, the first woman to be a
Nobel Peace Prize
laureate, became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel,
Die Waffen nieder!
("Lay Down Your Arms!") in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891.
Non-violent resistance
[
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]
In
colonial New Zealand
, during the latter half of the 19th century
European settlers
used numerous tactics to confiscate land from the indigenous
M?ori
, including
warfare
. In the 1870s and 1880s,
Parihaka
, then reported to be the largest M?ori settlement in New Zealand, became the centre of a major campaign of non-violent resistance to land confiscations. One M?ori leader,
Te Whiti-o-Rongomai
, quickly became the leading figure in the movement, stating in a speech that "Though some, in darkness of heart, seeing their land ravished, might wish to take arms and kill the aggressors, I say it must not be. Let not the Pakehas think to succeed by reason of their guns... I want not war". Te Whiti-o-Rongomai achieved renown for his non-violent tactics among the M?ori, which proved more successful in preventing land confiscations than acts of violent resistance.
[47]
Mahatma Gandhi
was a major political and spiritual leader of India, instrumental in the
Indian independence movement
. The Nobel prize winning great poet
Rabindranath Tagore
, who was also an Indian, gave him the honorific "
Mahatma
", usually translated "Great Soul". He was the pioneer of a brand of nonviolence (or
ahimsa
) which he called
satyagraha
– translated literally as "truth force". This was the resistance of tyranny through civil disobedience that was not only nonviolent but also sought to change the heart of the opponent. He contrasted this with
duragraha
, "resistant force", which sought only to change behaviour with stubborn protest. During his 30 years of work (1917?1947) for the independence of his country from
British colonial rule
, Gandhi led dozens of nonviolent campaigns, spent over seven years in prison, and
fasted nearly to the death
on several occasions to obtain British compliance with a demand or to stop inter-communal violence. His efforts helped lead India to independence in 1947, and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom worldwide.
World War I
[
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]
Peace movements became active in the Western world after 1900, often focusing on treaties that would settle disputes through arbitration, and efforts to support the Hague conventions.
[48]
The sudden outbreak of the
First World War
in July 1914 dismayed the peace movement. Socialist parties in every industrial nation had committed themselves to antiwar policies, but when the war came, all of them, except in Russia and the United States, supported their own governments. There were highly publicized dissidents, some of whom were imprisoned for opposing draft laws, such as
Eugene Debs
in the U.S.
[49]
In Britain, the prominent activist
Stephen Henry Hobhouse
was jailed for refusing military service, citing his convictions as a "socialist and a Christian".
[50]
Many
socialist
groups and movements were
antimilitarist
, arguing that war by its nature was a type of governmental coercion of the
working class
for the benefit of
capitalist
elites. The French socialist pacifist leader
Jean Jaures
was assassinated by a nationalist fanatic on 31 July 1914. The national parties in the
Second International
increasingly supported their respective nations in war, and the International was dissolved in 1916.
In 1915, the
League of Nations Society
was formed by British
liberal
leaders to promote a strong international organisation that could enforce the peaceful resolution of conflict. Later that year, the
League to Enforce Peace
was established in the U.S. to promote similar goals.
Hamilton Holt
published a 28 September 1914, editorial in his magazine the
Independent
called "The Way to Disarm: A Practical Proposal" that called for an international organization to agree upon the arbitration of disputes and to guarantee the territorial integrity of its members by maintaining military forces sufficient to defeat those of any non-member. The ensuing debate among prominent internationalists modified Holt's plan to align it more closely with proposals offered in Great Britain by
Viscount James Bryce
, a former British ambassador to the United States.
[51]
These and other initiatives were pivotal in the change in attitudes that gave birth to the
League of Nations
after the war.
In addition to the traditional peace churches, some of the many groups that protested against the war were the
Woman's Peace Party
(which was organized in 1915 and led by noted reformer
Jane Addams
), the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace (ICWPP) (also organized in 1915),
[52]
the
American Union Against Militarism
, the
Fellowship of Reconciliation
and the
American Friends Service Committee
.
[53]
Jeannette Rankin
, the first woman elected to Congress, was another fierce advocate of pacifism, the only person to vote against American entrance into both wars.
Between the two World Wars
[
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]
After the immense loss of nearly ten million men to
trench warfare
,
[54]
a sweeping change of attitude toward
militarism
crashed over Europe, particularly in nations such as Great Britain, where many questioned its involvement in the war. After World War I's official end in 1918, peace movements across the continent and the United States renewed, gradually gaining popularity among young Europeans who grew up in the shadow of Europe's trauma over the Great War. Organizations formed in this period included the
War Resisters' International
,
[55]
the
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
, the
No More War Movement
, the
Service Civil International
and the
Peace Pledge Union
(PPU). The
League of Nations
also convened several disarmament conferences in the interbellum period such as the
Geneva Conference
, though the support that pacifist policy and idealism received varied across European nations. These organizations and movements attracted tens of thousands of Europeans, spanning most professions including "scientists, artists, musicians, politicians, clerks, students, activists and thinkers."
[56]
Great Britain
[
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]
Pacifism and revulsion with war were very popular sentiments in 1920s Britain. Novels and poems on the theme of the futility of war and the slaughter of the youth by old fools were published, including,
Death of a Hero
by
Richard Aldington
,
Erich Remarque
's translated
All Quiet on the Western Front
and
Beverley Nichols
's expose
Cry Havoc
. A debate at the
University of Oxford
in 1933 on the motion 'one must fight for King and country' captured the changed mood when the motion was resoundingly defeated.
Dick Sheppard
established the
Peace Pledge Union
in 1934, which totally renounced war and aggression. The idea of collective security was also popular; instead of outright pacifism, the public generally exhibited a determination to stand up to aggression, but preferably with the use of economic sanctions and multilateral negotiations.
[57]
Many members of the Peace Pledge Union later joined the
Bruderhof
[58]
during its period of residence in the Cotswolds, where Englishmen and Germans, many of whom were Jewish, lived side by side despite local persecution.
[59]
The British
Labour Party
had a strong pacifist wing in the early 1930s, and between 1931 and 1935 it was led by
George Lansbury
, a Christian pacifist who later chaired the No More War Movement and was president of the PPU. The 1933 annual conference resolved unanimously to "pledge itself to take no part in war". Researcher Richard Toye writes that "Labour's official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of 'collective security' under the League of Nations. At the same time, on the party's left,
Stafford Cripps
's small but vocal
Socialist League
opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was 'nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers'."
[60]
Lansbury was eventually persuaded to resign as Labour leader by the non-pacifist wing of the party and was replaced by
Clement Attlee
.
[61]
As the threat from
Nazi Germany
increased in the 1930s, the Labour Party abandoned its pacifist position and supported rearmament, largely as the result of the efforts of
Ernest Bevin
and
Hugh Dalton
, who by 1937 had also persuaded the party to oppose
Neville Chamberlain
's policy of
appeasement
.
[62]
The
League of Nations
attempted to play its role in ensuring world peace in the 1920s and 1930s. However, with the increasingly revisionist and aggressive behaviour of Nazi Germany,
Fascist Italy
and
Imperial Japan
, it ultimately failed to maintain such a world order.
Economic sanctions
were used against states that committed aggression, such as those against Italy when it
invaded Abyssinia
, but there was no will on the part of the principal League powers, Britain and France, to subordinate their interests to a multilateral process or to disarm at all themselves.
Spain
[
edit
]
The
Spanish Civil War
proved a major test for international pacifism, and the work of pacifist organisations (such as
War Resisters' International
and the
Fellowship of Reconciliation
) and individuals (such as
Jose Brocca
and
Amparo Poch
) in that arena has until recently
[
when?
]
been ignored or forgotten by historians, overshadowed by the memory of the
International Brigades
and other militaristic interventions. Shortly after the war ended,
Simone Weil
, despite having volunteered for service on the republican side, went on to publish
The Iliad or the Poem of Force
, a work that has been described as a pacifist manifesto.
[63]
In response to the threat of fascism, some pacifist thinkers, such as
Richard B. Gregg
, devised plans for a campaign of
nonviolent resistance
in the event of a fascist invasion or takeover.
[64]
France
[
edit
]
As the prospect of a second major war began to seem increasingly inevitable, much of France adopted pacifist views, though some historians argue that France felt more war anxiety than a moral objection to a second war. Hitler's spreading influence and territory posed an enormous threat to French livelihood from their neighbors. The French countryside had been devastated during World War I and the entire nation was reluctant to subject its territory to the same treatment. Though all countries in the First World War had suffered great losses, France was one of the most devastated and many did not want a second war.
[65]
Germany
[
edit
]
As Germany dealt with the burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, a conflict arose in the 1930s between German Christianity and German nationalism. Many Germans found the terms of the treaty debilitating and humiliating, so German nationalism offered a way to regain the country's pride. German Christianity warned against the risks of entering a war similar to the previous one. As the German depression worsened and fascism began to rise in Germany, a greater tide of Germans began to sway toward Hitler's brand of nationalism that would come to crush pacifism.
[66]
World War II
[
edit
]
With the start of
World War II
, pacifist and antiwar sentiment declined in nations affected by the war. Even the communist-controlled
American Peace Mobilization
reversed its antiwar activism once Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. After the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
, the
non-interventionist
America First Committee
dropped its opposition to American involvement in the war and disbanded,
[67]
but many smaller religious and socialist groups continued their opposition to war.
Great Britain
[
edit
]
Bertrand Russell
argued that the necessity of defeating
Adolf Hitler
and the
Nazis
was a unique circumstance in which war was not the worst of the possible evils; he called his position
relative pacifism
. Shortly before the outbreak of war, British writers such as
E. M. Forster
,
Leonard Woolf
,
David Garnett
and
Storm Jameson
all rejected their earlier pacifism and endorsed military action against Nazism.
[68]
Similarly,
Albert Einstein
wrote: "I loathe all armies and any kind of violence; yet I'm firmly convinced that at present these hateful weapons offer the only effective protection."
[69]
The British pacifists
Reginald Sorensen
and
C. J. Cadoux
, while bitterly disappointed by the outbreak of war, nevertheless urged their fellow pacifists "not to obstruct the war effort."
[70]
Pacifists across Great Britain further struggled to uphold their anti-military values during the
Blitz
, a coordinated, long-term attack by the
Luftwaffe
on Great Britain. As the country was ravaged nightly by German bombing raids, pacifists had to seriously weigh the importance of their political and moral values against the desire to protect their nation.
[71]
France
[
edit
]
Some scholars theorize that pacifism was the cause of France's rapid fall to the Germans after it was
invaded
by the Nazis in June 1940, resulting in a takeover of the government by the German military. Whether or not pacifism weakened French defenses against the Germans, there was no hope of sustaining a real pacifist movement after Paris fell. Just as peaceful Germans succumbed to violent nationalism, the pacifist French were muzzled by the totality of German control over nearly all of France.
[72]
The French pacifists
Andre and Magda Trocme
helped conceal hundreds of Jews fleeing the Nazis in the village of
Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
.
[73]
[74]
After the war, the Trocmes were declared
Righteous Among the Nations
.
[73]
Germany
[
edit
]
Pacifists in
Nazi Germany
were dealt with harshly, reducing the movement into almost nonexistence; those who continued to advocate for the end of the war and violence were often sent to labor camps; German pacifist
Carl von Ossietzky
[75]
and
Olaf Kullmann
, a Norwegian pacifist active during the Nazi occupation,
[76]
were both imprisoned in concentration camps and died as a result of their mistreatment there. Austrian farmer
Franz Jagerstatter
was executed in 1943 for refusing to serve in the
Wehrmacht
.
[77]
German nationalism consumed even the most peaceful of Christians, who may have believed that Hitler was acting in the good faith of Germany or who may have been so suppressed by the Nazi regime that they were content to act as bystanders to the violence occurring around them.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
, an anti-Nazi German pastor who later died in 1945 in the
Flossenburg concentration camp
, once wrote in a letter to his grandmother: "The issue really is: Germanism or Christianity."
[78]
After the end of the war, it was discovered that "
The Black Book
" or
Sonderfahndungsliste G.B.
, a list of Britons to be arrested in the event of a
successful German invasion of Britain
, included three active pacifists:
Vera Brittain
,
Sybil Thorndike
and
Aldous Huxley
(who had left the country).
[79]
[80]
Conscientious objectors
[
edit
]
There were
conscientious objectors
and war
tax resisters
in both
World War I
and
World War II
. The United States government allowed sincere objectors to serve in noncombatant military roles. However, those
draft resisters
who refused any cooperation with the war effort often spent much of the wars in federal prisons. During World War II, pacifist leaders such as
Dorothy Day
and
Ammon Hennacy
of the
Catholic Worker Movement
urged young Americans not to enlist in military service.
During the two world wars, young men conscripted into the military, but who refused to take up arms, were called conscientious objectors. Though these men had to either answer their conscription or face prison time, their status as conscientious objectors permitted them to refuse to take part in battle using weapons, and the military was forced to find a different use for them. Often, these men were assigned various tasks close to battle such as medical duties, though some were assigned various civilian jobs including farming, forestry, hospital work and mining.
[81]
Conscientious objectors were often viewed by soldiers as cowards and liars, and they were sometimes accused of shirking military duty out of fear rather than as the result of conscience. In Great Britain during World War II, the majority of the public did not approve of moral objection by soldiers but supported their right to abstain from direct combat. On the more extreme sides of public opinion were those who fully supported the objectors and those who believed they should be executed as traitors.
[81]
The World War II objectors were often scorned as fascist sympathizers and traitors, though many of them cited the influence of World War I and their
shell shocked
fathers as major reasons for refusing to participate.
[82]
Later 20th century
[
edit
]
Baptist
minister
Martin Luther King Jr.
led a
civil rights movement
in the U.S., employing
Gandhian
nonviolent resistance
to repeal laws enforcing racial segregation and to work for integration of schools, businesses and government. In 1957, his wife
Coretta Scott King
, along with
Albert Schweitzer
,
Benjamin Spock
and others, formed the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (now
Peace Action
) to resist the
nuclear arms race
. In 1958 British activists formed the
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
with Bertrand Russell as its president.
In 1960,
Thich Nhat Hanh
came to the U.S. to study
comparative religion
at
Princeton University
and was subsequently appointed a lecturer in Buddhism at
Columbia University
. Nh?t H?nh had written a letter to King in 1965 entitled "Searching for the Enemy of Man" and met with King in 1966 to urge him to publicly denounce the
Vietnam War
.
[3]
In a famous 1967 speech at
Riverside Church
in New York City,
[83]
King publicly questioned the U.S. involvement in Vietnam for the first time.
Other examples from this period include the 1986
People Power Revolution
in the Philippines led by
Corazon Aquino
and the 1989
Tiananmen Square protests
, with the broadly publicized "
Tank Man
" incident as its indelible image.
On 1 December 1948, President
Jose Figueres Ferrer
of Costa Rica abolished the
Costa Rican military
.
[84]
In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican constitution. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing healthcare services and education.
[85]
Antiwar literature of the 20th century
[
edit
]
Religious attitudes
[
edit
]
Baha?i Faith
[
edit
]
Baha'u'llah
, the founder of the
Baha?i Faith
abolished
holy war
and emphasized its abolition as a central teaching of his faith.
[86]
However, the Baha?i Faith does not have an absolute pacifistic position. For example, Baha?is are advised to do social service instead of active army service, but when this is not possible because of obligations in certain countries, the
Baha?i law
of
loyalty to one's government
is preferred and the individual should perform the army service.
[87]
[88]
Shoghi Effendi
, the head of the Baha?i Faith in the first half of the 20th century, noted that in the Baha?i view, absolute pacifists are anti-social and exalt the individual over society which could lead to anarchy; instead he noted that the Baha?i conception of social life follows a moderate view where the individual is not suppressed or exalted.
[89]
On the level of society, Baha'u'llah promotes the principle of
collective security
, which does not abolish the use of force, but prescribes "a system in which Force is made the servant of Justice".
[90]
The idea of collective security from the Baha'i teachings states that if a government violates a fundamental norm of international law or provision of a future
world constitution
which Baha'is believe will be established by all nations, then the other governments should step in.
[91]
Buddhism
[
edit
]
Ahimsa
(do no harm), is a primary virtue in Buddhism (as well as other Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism).
[92]
This leads to a misconception that Buddhism is a religion based solely on peace; however, like all religions, there is a long history of violence in various Buddhist traditions and many examples of prolonged violence in its 2,500-year existence. Like many religious scholars and believers of other religions, many Buddhists disavow any connection between their religion and the violence committed in its name or by its followers, and find various ways of dealing with problematic texts.
[93]
Notable pacifists or peace activists within Buddhist traditions include
Thich Nh?t H?nh
who advocated for peace in response to the Vietnam War, founded the
Plum Village Tradition
, and helped popularize
engaged Buddhism
,
[94]
[95]
Robert Baker Aitken
and
Anne Hopkins Aitken
who founded the
Buddhist Peace Fellowship
,
[96]
Cheng Yen
founder of the
Tzu Chi Foundation
,
[97]
Daisaku Ikeda
who is a Japanese Buddhist leader, writer, president of
Soka Gakkai International
, and founder of multiple educational and peace research institutions,
[98]
Bhikkhu Bodhi
American Theravada Buddhist monk and founder of
Buddhist Global Relief
,
[99]
Thai activist and author
Sulak Sivaraksa
,
[100]
Cambodian activist
Preah Maha Ghosananda
.
[101]
and Japanese activist and peace pagoda builder
Nichidatsu Fujii
.
[102]
Christianity
[
edit
]
Peace churches
[
edit
]
Peace churches
are Christian denominations explicitly advocating pacifism. The term "historic peace churches" refers specifically to three church traditions: the
Church of the Brethren
, the
Mennonites
(and other
Anabaptists
, such as the
Amish
,
Hutterites
and
Apostolic Christian Church
),
[103]
as well as the
Quakers
(Religious Society of Friends). The historic peace churches have, from their origins as far back as the 16th century, always taken the position that
Jesus
was himself a pacifist who explicitly taught and practiced pacifism, and that his followers must do likewise. Pacifist churches vary on whether physical force can ever be justified in
self-defense
or protecting others, as many adhere strictly to
nonresistance
when confronted by violence. But all agree that violence on behalf of a country or a government is prohibited for Christians.
Holiness movement
[
edit
]
The
Emmanuel Association of Churches
,
Immanuel Missionary Church
,
Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)
, First Bible Holiness Church, and
Christ's Sanctified Holy Church
are denominations in the
holiness movement
(which is largely
Methodist
with a minority from other backgrounds such as Quaker, Anabaptist and Restorationist) known for their opposition to war today; they are known as "holiness pacifists".
[104]
[105]
[106]
[107]
The Emmanuel Association teaches:
[107]
[108]
We feel bound explicitly to avow our unshaken persuasion that War is utterly incompatible with the plain precepts of our divine Lord and Law-giver, and with the whole spirit of the Gospel; and that no plea of necessity or policy, however urgent or peculiar, can avail to release either individuals or nations for the paramount allegiance which they owe to Him who hath said, "Love your enemies." Therefore, we cannot participate in war (Rom. 12:19), war activities, or compulsory training.
[107]
Pentecostal churches
[
edit
]
Jay Beaman's thesis
[109]
states that 13 of 21, or 62% of American Pentecostal groups formed by 1917 show evidence of being pacifist sometime in their history. Furthermore, Jay Beaman has shown in his thesis
[109]
that there has been a shift away from pacifism in the American Pentecostal churches to more a style of military support and chaplaincy. The major organisation for Pentecostal Christians who believe in pacifism is the PCPF, the
Pentecostal Charismatic Peace Fellowship
.
The
United Pentecostal Church
, the largest Apostolic/
Oneness
denomination, takes an official stand of conscientious objection: its Articles of Faith read, "We are constrained to declare against participating in combatant service in war, armed insurrection ... aiding or abetting in or the actual destruction of human life. We believe that we can be consistent in serving our Government in certain noncombatant capacities, but not in the bearing of arms."
[110]
Other denominations
[
edit
]
The
Peace Pledge Union
is a pacifist organisation from which the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship (APF) later emerged within the Anglican Church. The APF succeeded in gaining ratification of the pacifist position at two successive
Lambeth Conferences
, but many Anglicans would not regard themselves as pacifists. South African Bishop
Desmond Tutu
is the most prominent Anglican pacifist.
Rowan Williams
led an almost united Anglican Church in Britain in opposition to the 2003
Iraq War
. In Australia
Peter Carnley
similarly led a front of bishops opposed to the
Government of Australia
's involvement in the invasion of Iraq.
The
Catholic Worker Movement
is concerned with both social justice and pacifist issues, and voiced consistent opposition to the
Spanish Civil War
and World War II. Many of its early members were imprisoned for their opposition to
conscription
.
[111]
Within the Roman Catholic Church, the
Pax Christi
organisation is the premier pacifist lobby group. It holds positions similar to APF, and the two organisations are known to work together on ecumenical projects. Within Roman Catholicism there has been a discernible move towards a more pacifist position through the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Popes
Benedict XV
,
John XXIII
and
John Paul II
were all vocal in their opposition to specific wars. By taking the name
Benedict XVI
, some suspected that
Joseph Ratzinger
would continue the strong emphasis upon nonviolent conflict resolution of his predecessor. However, the Roman Catholic Church officially maintains the legitimacy of Just War, which is rejected by some pacifists.
In the twentieth century there was a notable trend among prominent Roman Catholics towards pacifism. Individuals such as
Dorothy Day
and
Henri Nouwen
stand out among them. The monk and mystic
Thomas Merton
was noted for his commitment to pacifism during the
Vietnam War
era. Murdered Salvadoran Bishop
Oscar Romero
was notable for using non-violent resistance tactics and wrote meditative sermons focusing on the power of prayer and peace.
School of the Americas Watch
was founded by Maryknoll Fr. Roy Bourgeois in 1990 and uses strictly pacifist principles to protest the training of Latin American military officers by United States Army officers at the School of the Americas in the state of Georgia.
The
Southern Baptist Convention
has stated in the
Baptist Faith and Message
, "It is the duty of Christians to seek peace with all men on principles of
righteousness
. In accordance with the spirit and teachings of Christ they should do all in their power to put an end to war."
[112]
The
United Methodist Church
explicitly supports conscientious objection by its members "as an ethically valid position" while simultaneously allowing for differences of opinion and belief for those who do not object to military service.
[113]
Members of the
Rastafari Movement
's Mansion
Nyabinghi
are specifically noted for having a large population of Pacifist members, though not all of them are.
[114]
Hinduism
[
edit
]
Non violence, or
ahimsa
, is a central part of Hinduism and is one of the fundamental
Yamas
? self restraints needed to live a proper life. The concept of ahimsa grew gradually within Hinduism, one of the signs being the discouragement of ritual animal sacrifice. Many Hindus today have a vegetarian diet. The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defence and theories of proportionate punishment.
[115]
[116]
Arthashastra
discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.
[117]
[118]
The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.
[115]
[117]
While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.
[115]
[116]
Islam
[
edit
]
Different Muslim movements through history had linked pacifism with
Muslim theology
.
[119]
[120]
[121]
However,
warfare
has been integral part of Islamic history both for the defense and the spread of the faith since the time of
Muhammad
.
[122]
[123]
[124]
[125]
[126]
Peace is an important aspect of Islam
, and Muslims are encouraged to strive for peace and peaceful solutions to all problems. However, most Muslims are generally not pacifists, as the teachings in the Qur'an and Hadith allow for wars to be fought if they are justified.
[127]
Sufism
[
edit
]
Prior to the
Hijra
travel,
Muhammad
struggled
non-violently
against his opposition in Mecca,
[128]
providing a basis for Islamic pacifist schools of thought such as some
Sufi orders
.
[129]
In the 13th century,
Salim Suwari
a philosopher in Islam, came up with a peaceful approach to Islam known as the
Suwarian tradition
.
[119]
[120]
The earliest massive non-violent implementation of
civil disobedience
was brought about by
Egyptians
against the British in the
Egyptian Revolution of 1919
.
[130]
Kh?n Abdul Ghaff?r Kh?n
was a
Pashtun
independence activist
against
British colonial rule
. He was a political and spiritual leader known for his
nonviolent
opposition, and a lifelong pacifist and devout
Muslim
.
[131]
A close friend of
Mahatma Gandhi
, Bacha Khan was nicknamed the "Frontier Gandhi" in
British India
.
[132]
Bacha Khan founded the
Khudai Khidmatgar
("Servants of God") movement in 1929, whose success triggered severe crackdowns by the colonial government against Khan and his supporters, and they experienced some of the strongest repression of the Indian independence movement.
[133]
Ahmadiyya
[
edit
]
According to the
Ahmadiyya
understanding of Islam, pacifism is a strong current, and jihad is one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
, the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, said that in contrary to the current views, Islam
does not allow the use of sword in religion, except in the case of defensive wars, wars waged to punish a tyrant, or those meant to uphold freedom
.
[134]
Ahmadiyya claims its objective to be the peaceful propagation of
Islam
with special emphasis on spreading the true message of Islam by the pen. Ahmadis point out that as per prophecy, who they believe was the promised messiah, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, rendered the concept of violent jihad unnecessary in modern times. They believe that the answer of hate should be given by love.
[135]
Many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either
kafirs
or
heretics
, an animosity sometimes resulting in murder.
[136]
[137]
[138]
Jainism
[
edit
]
Absolute Non-violence and compassion for all life
is central to
Jainism
. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. Killing any person or living creature seen or unseen, no matter what crime may have committed, is considered unimaginably terrible. It is a religion that requires monks, from all its sects and traditions, to be
vegetarian
. Most or all Jains are pure vegetarians. Some Indian regions, such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local Hindus of every denomination are also vegetarian.
[139]
Judaism
[
edit
]
Although
Judaism
is not a pacifist religion, it does believe that peace is highly desirable. Most Jews will hope to limit or minimise conflict and violence but they accept that, given human nature and the situations which arise from time to time in the world, there will be occasions when violence and war may be justified.
[140]
The Jewish Peace Fellowship is a New-York based
nonprofit
,
nondenominational
organization set up to provide a
Jewish
voice in the
peace movement
. The organization was founded in 1941 in order to support Jewish
conscientious objectors
who sought exemption from combatant military service.
[141]
It is affiliated to the
International Fellowship of Reconciliation
.
[142]
The fringe
Neturei Karta
group of anti-Zionist, ultra-orthodox Jews, supposedly take a pacifist line, saying that "Jews are not allowed to dominate, kill, harm or demean another people and are not allowed to have anything to do with the Zionist enterprise, their political meddling and their wars."
[143]
However, the Neturei Karta group do support groups such as
Hezbollah
and
Hamas
that are violent towards Israel.
[144]
The
Hebrew Bible
has many examples of Jews being told to go and war against enemy lands or within the Israelite community as well as instances where God, as destroyer and protector, goes to war for non-participant Jews.
[145]
Government and political movements
[
edit
]
While many governments have tolerated pacifist views and even accommodated pacifists' refusal to fight in wars, others at times have outlawed pacifist and anti-war activity. In 1918, The United States Congress passed the
Sedition Act of 1918
. During the periods between World Wars I and World War II, pacifist literature and public advocacy was banned in Italy under
Benito Mussolini
, Germany after the rise of
Adolf Hitler
,
[146]
Spain
under
Francisco Franco
,
[147]
and the
Soviet Union
under
Joseph Stalin
.
[148]
In these nations, pacifism was denounced as cowardice; indeed, Mussolini referred to pacifist writings as the "propaganda of cowardice".
[146]
Today, the United States requires that all young men register for selective service but does not allow them to be classified as conscientious objectors unless they are drafted in some future reinstatement of the draft, allowing them to be discharged or transferred to noncombatant status.
[149]
Some European governments like
Switzerland
, Greece, Norway and Germany offer
civilian service
. However, even during periods of peace, many pacifists still refuse to register for or report for military duty, risking criminal charges.
Anti-war and "pacifist" political parties seeking to win elections may moderate their demands, calling for
de-escalation
or major
arms reduction
rather than the outright
disarmament
which is advocated by many pacifists.
Green parties
list "
non-violence
" and "
decentralization
" towards anarchist co-operatives or minimalist village government as two of their ten key values. However, in power, Greens often compromise. The German Greens in the cabinet of Social Democrat
Gerhard Schroder
supported an intervention by German troops in Afghanistan in 2001 if that they hosted the peace conference in Berlin. However, during the 2002 election Greens forced Schroder to swear that no German troops would invade Iraq.
Some pacifists and
multilateralists
are in favor of international criminal law as means to prevent and control international aggression. The
International Criminal Court
has jurisdiction over war crimes, but the crime of aggression has yet to be clearly defined in international law.
[
need quotation to verify
]
The
Italian Constitution
enforces a mild pacifist character on the Italian Republic, as Article 11 states that "Italy repudiates war as an instrument offending the liberty of the peoples and as a means for settling international disputes ..." Similarly, Articles 24, 25 and 26 of the
German Constitution
(1949), Alinea 15 of the French Constitution (1946), Article 20 of the
Danish Constitution
(1953),
Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution
(1947) and several other mostly European constitutions correspond to the United Nations Charter by rejecting the institution of war in favour of
collective security
and peaceful cooperation.
[150]
Pacifism and abstention from political activity
[
edit
]
However, some pacifists, such as the
Christian anarchist
Leo Tolstoy
and
autarchist
Robert LeFevre
, consider the state a form of warfare. In addition, for doctrinal reason that a manmade government is inferior to divine governance and law, many pacifist-identified religions/religious sects also refrain from political activity altogether, including the
Anabaptists
,
Jehovah's Witnesses
and
Mandaeans
. This means that such groups refuse to participate in government office or serve under an oath to a government.
Anarcho-pacifism
[
edit
]
Anarcho-pacifism is a form of
anarchism
which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose. The main precedent was
Henry David Thoreau
who through his work
Civil Disobedience
influenced the advocacy of both Leo Tolstoy and Mahatma Gandhi for
nonviolent resistance
.
[151]
As a global movement, anarcho-pacifism emerged shortly before
World War II
in the Netherlands, Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns for
nuclear disarmament
.
Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists during the 19th century embraced
propaganda of the deed
,
Leo Tolstoy
and other anarcho-pacifists directly opposed violence as a means for change. He argued that anarchism must by nature be nonviolent since it is, by definition, opposition to coercion and force and since the state is inherently violent, meaningful pacifism must likewise be anarchistic. His philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Mahatma Gandhi, an
Indian independence
leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist.
Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis
was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement.
[152]
In France, anti-militarism appeared strongly in individualist anarchist circles as
Emile Armand
founded "Ligue Antimilitariste" in 1902 with
Albert Libertad
and George Mathias Paraf-Javal.
Opposition to military taxation
[
edit
]
Many pacifists who would be conscientious objectors to military service are also
opposed to paying taxes
to fund the military. In the United States,
The National Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund
works to pass a national law to allow conscientious objectors to redirect their tax money to be used only for non-military purposes.
[153]
Criticism
[
edit
]
One common argument against pacifism is the possibility of using violence to prevent further acts of violence (and reduce the "net-sum" of violence). This argument hinges on
consequentialism
: an otherwise morally objectionable action can be justified if it results in a positive outcome. For example, either violent rebellion, or foreign nations sending in troops to end a dictator's violent oppression may save millions of lives, even if many thousands died in the war. Those pacifists who base their beliefs on
deontological
grounds would oppose such violent action. Others would oppose organized military responses but support individual and small group self-defense against specific attacks if initiated by the dictator's forces. Pacifists may argue that military action could be justified should it subsequently advance the general cause of peace.
Still more pacifists would argue that a nonviolent reaction may not save lives immediately but would in the long run. The acceptance of violence for any reason makes it easier to use in other situations. Learning and committing to pacifism helps to send a message that violence is, in fact, not the most effective way. It can also help people to think more creatively and find more effective ways to stop violence without more violence.
In light of the common criticism of pacifism as not offering a clear alternative policy, one approach to finding "more effective ways" has been the attempt to develop the idea of "defence by
civil resistance
", also called "
social defence
". This idea, which is not necessarily dependent on acceptance of pacifist beliefs, is based on relying on
nonviolent resistance
against possible threats, whether external (such as invasion) or internal (such as
coup d'etat
).
There have been some works on this topic, including by
Adam Roberts
[154]
and
Gene Sharp
.
[155]
However, no country has adopted this approach as the sole basis of its defence.
[156]
(For further information and sources see
social defence
.)
Axis aggression that precipitated
World War II
has been cited as an argument against pacifism.
[157]
If these forces had not been challenged and defeated militarily, the argument goes, many more people would have died under their oppressive rule.
Adolf Hitler
told the British Foreign Secretary
Lord Halifax
in 1937 that the British should "shoot Gandhi, and if this doesn't suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of the Congress, and if that doesn't suffice shoot 200, and so on, as you make it clear that you mean business."
[158]
Adolf Hitler
noted in his
Second Book
: "... Later, the attempt to adapt the living space to increased population turned into unmotivated wars of conquest, which in their very lack of motivation contained the germ of the subsequent reaction. Pacifism is the answer to it. Pacifism has existed in the world ever since there have been wars whose meaning no longer lay in the conquest of territory for a Folk's sustenance. Since then it has been war's eternal companion. It will again disappear as soon as war ceases to be an instrument of booty hungry or power hungry individuals or nations, and as soon as it again becomes the ultimate weapon with which a Folk fights for its daily bread."
[159]
Hermann Goring
described, during an interview at the
Nuremberg Trials
, how denouncing and outlawing pacifism was an important part of the Nazis' seizure of power: "The people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country."
[160]
Some commentators on the most nonviolent forms of pacifism, including
Jan Narveson
, argue that such pacifism is a self-contradictory doctrine. Narveson claims that everyone has rights and corresponding responsibilities not to violate others' rights. Since pacifists give up their ability to protect themselves from violation of their right not to be harmed, then other people thus have no corresponding responsibility, thus creating a paradox of rights. Narveson said that "the prevention of infractions of that right is precisely what one has a right to when one has a right at all." Narveson then discusses how rational persuasion is a good but often inadequate method of discouraging an aggressor. He considers that everyone has the right to use any means necessary to prevent deprivation of their civil liberties, and force could be necessary.
[161]
Peter Gelderloos
criticizes the idea that nonviolence is the only way to fight for a better world. According to Gelderloos, pacifism as an ideology serves the interests of the state and is hopelessly caught up psychologically with the control schema of patriarchy and white supremacy.
[162]
See also
[
edit
]
References
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- ^
"Jewish Peace Fellowship"
.
Archived
from the original on 5 December 2010
. Retrieved
15 September
2010
.
- ^
"IFOR Members"
. Archived from
the original
on 23 April 2013
. Retrieved
15 September
2010
.
- ^
"What is the Neturei Karta?"
.
Archived
from the original on 13 May 2011
. Retrieved
16 September
2010
.
- ^
"Anti-Zionist ultra-Orthodox Jews celebrate Sabbath in Gaza"
.
Haaretz
.
Archived
from the original on 6 June 2011
. Retrieved
4 January
2012
.
- ^
Niditch, Susan,
War in the Hebrew Bible
(Oxford University Press ed. 1993)
- ^
a
b
Benjamin Ziemann, "Pacifism" in
World Fascism:An Encyclopedia
, edited by Cyprian P. Blamires. ABC-CLIO Ltd, 2006.
ISBN
1576079406
(pp. 495?496)
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Brock and Young, pp. 96?97, 311.
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. Les Cahiers du Vent du Chemin. Paris, 1983.
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"Conscientious Objection Today, Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors"
.
Archived
from the original on 4 August 2007
. Retrieved
30 July
2007
.
- ^
"Constitutional clauses providing for limitations of national sovereignty to achieve cooperation, peace and disarmament"
. Archived from
the original
on 20 July 2009
. Retrieved
17 August
2008
.
- ^
"The pacifist and anarchist tradition by Geoffrey Ostergaard"
. Archived from
the original
on 14 May 2011
. Retrieved
1 March
2010
.
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Woodcock, George (2004).
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. Peterborough: Broadview Press.
ISBN
978-1551116297
.
- ^
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. Archived from
the original
on 3 March 2016
. Retrieved
8 July
2010
.
- ^
Adam Roberts, ed.
The Strategy of Civilian Defence: Non-violent Resistance to Aggression
, Faber, London, 1967. (Also published as
Civilian Resistance as a National Defense
, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, USA, 1968; and, with a new Introduction on "Czechoslovakia and Civilian Defence", as
Civilian Resistance as a National Defence
, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, UK, and Baltimore, US, 1969.
ISBN
0140210806
.)
- ^
Gene Sharp,
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, Porter Sargent, Boston, 1980, pp. 195?261.
ISBN
0875580939
(paperback); and
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, Princeton University Press, 1990.
ISBN
0691078092
.
- ^
Adam Roberts
, in Roberts and Garton Ash (ed.),
Civil Resistance and Power Politics
, Introduction, p. 12.
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S2CID
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- ^
Gelderloos, Peter (2007).
How Nonviolence Protects the State
. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. 128.
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.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Agnew, Elizabeth N. "A will to peace: Jane Addams, World War I, and 'pacifism in practice'."
Peace & Change
42.1 (2017): 5?31.
- Bamba, Nabuya, ed.
Pacifism in Japan: the Christian and Socialist tradition
(1978)
online
- Brock, Peter and Young, Nigel.
Pacifism in the Twentieth Century
(Syracuse UP, 1999).
online
- Brock, Peter.
Pacifism in Europe to 1914
(1972)
online
- Brock, Peter.
Varieties of Pacifism: A Survey from Antiquity to the Outset of the Twentieth Century
(Syracuse UP, 1999).
- Brock, Peter.
Pacifism in the United States: from the colonial era to the First World War
(1968)
online
- Carroll, Berenice A.
Feminism and pacifism: Historical and theoretical connections
(Routledge, 2019).
- Castelli, Alberto.
The Peace Discourse in Europe (1900?1945)
(Routledge, 2019).
- Ceadel, Martin.
Pacifism in Britain, 1914?1945: the defining of a faith
(1980)
online
- Chandra, Sudhir (dir.),
Violence and Non-violence across Times. History, Religion and Culture
, Routledge, London and New York, 2018 [articles by various authors]
ISBN
978-0367479237
- Chatfield, Charles.
For peace and justice: pacifism in America, 1914?1941
(University of Tennessee Press, 1971).
- Chatfield, Charles.
The American peace movement: ideals and activism
(1992)
online free to borrow
- Cortright, David.
Peace :A History of Movements and Ideas
(Cambridge UP, 2008).
- Day, ALan J. ed.
Peace movements of the world
(1986)
online
- Fiala, Andrew, ed.
The Routledge Handbook of Pacifism and Nonviolence
(Routledge, 2018).
excerpt
- Gustafsson, Karl, Linus Hagstrom, and Ulv Hanssen. "Japan's pacifism is dead."
Survival
60.6 (2018): 137?158.
online
[
dead link
]
- Hassell, Tristin S. (2011).
"Pacifism"
. In Deen K. Chatterjee (ed.).
Encyclopedia of Global Justice
. Springer.
ISBN
978-1402091599
.
- Henderson, Gavin B. "The Pacifists of the Fifties"
Journal of Modern History
9#3, (1937), pp. 314?341
online
1850s in Britain
- Higgs, Robert
(2008).
"Peace and Pacifism"
. In
Hamowy, Ronald
(ed.).
The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage
;
Cato Institute
. pp. 373?377.
ISBN
978-1412965804
.
- Holmes, Robert L. and Gan, Barry L. editors.
Nonviolence in Theory and Practice
3rd, edition. (Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, 2012).
- Huxley, Aldous.
An encyclopaedia of pacifism
(1937)
online
- Ingram, Norman.
The politics of dissent: pacifism in France 1919?1939
(1991)
online
- Jarausch, Konrad H. "Armageddon Revisited: Peace Research Perspectives on World War One."
Peace & Change
7.1?2 (1981): 109?118.
- Jefferson, Charles Edward
(1920),
Varieties of Pacifism
, International Peace Series, New York: World Alliance for International Friendship through the Churches,
OCLC
15243673
,
OL
22896131M
- Laqueur, Walter, and Robert Hunter, eds.
European peace movements and the future of the Western Alliance
(1985)
online
- Lewy, Guenter.
Peace & revolution: the moral crisis of American pacifism
(1998)
online
- Lunardini, Christine A.
The ABC-CLIO companion to the American peace movement in the twentieth century
(1994)
online free to borrow
- Mayer, Peter
, ed. (1967),
Mayer, Peter.
The Pacifist Conscience
, Henry Regnery Co.,
OL
21324283M
- Morgan, W. John, "Pacifism or Bourgeois Pacifism? Huxley, Orwell, and Caudwell". In Morgan, W. John and Guilherme, Alexandre (Eds.),
Peace and War: Historical, Philosophical, and Anthropological Perspectives
,(Palgrave Macmillan,2020) 71?96.
ISBN
978-3030486709
.
- Patterson, David S.
The Search for Negotiated Peace: Women's Activism and Citizen Diplomacy in World War I
(Routledge. 2008)
- Phelps, Christina,
The Anglo-American peace movement in the mid-nineteenth century
(1930)
- Pilisuc, Marc, ed.
Peace movements worldwide
(3 vol. 2011)
online vol 2
; also
Peace movements worldwide
vol 3 online\
- Rock, Stephen R. "From Just War to Nuclear Pacifism: The Evolution of US Christian Thinking about War in the Nuclear Age, 1946?1989."
Social Sciences
7.6 (2018): 82+
online
- Socknat, Thomas P.
Witness against war: pacifism in Canada, 1900?1945
(1987)
online
- Tolstoy, Leo
.
Bethink Yourselves!
(1904)
online
- Wittner, Lawrence S.
Rebels against war: the American peace movement, 1941?1960
(1970)
online free to borrow
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