Westernmost group of Mongols
This article is about the Oirat ethnic group. For the obsolete term for the Turkic Altays, see
Altay people
.
Ethnic group
Oirats
![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Map_of_the_Oirat_Confederation.png/220px-Map_of_the_Oirat_Confederation.png) |
|
655,372
|
|
China
(mainly in
Xinjiang
)
| 250,000 (2013 estimate)
|
---|
Mongolia
| 205,000 (2010 census)
|
---|
Russia
| 183,372 (2010 census)
|
---|
Kyrgyzstan
| 12,000 (2018)
|
---|
Other
| 5,000 (2020)
|
---|
|
Mainly:
Oirat
,
Russian
, other
Mongolian languages
Regional:
Chinese
|
|
Tibetan Buddhism
,
Mongolian shamanism
,
Islam
[1]
|
|
Kalmyks
and other
Mongol peoples
,
Tuvans
|
Oirats
(
Mongolian
:
Ойрад
,
Oirad
,
Mongolian pronunciation:
[?i?r?t]
) or
Oirds
(
Ойрд
,
Oird
;
Kalmyk
:
??рд
;
Chinese
:
瓦剌
,
W?la/W?l?
), also formerly
Eluts
and
Eleuths
(
Chinese
:
厄魯特
,
El?te
),
[2]
[3]
are the westernmost group of the
Mongols
whose ancestral home is in the
Altai
region of
Siberia
,
Xinjiang
and western
Mongolia
.
The first documented reference to
Elut
and
Yelut
was in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century.
[4]
Historically, the Oirats were composed of four major tribes:
Dzungar
(Choros or
Olots
/
Elut
/
Yelut
/
El?te
),
Torghut
,
Dorbet
and
Khoshut
.
The political elite of the
Rouran
and
Tobgach
empires were
YELU
-T Mongolic speakers. Although these two empires encompassed multilingual populations, the language of diplomacy, trade, and culture was an OLU (YELU) dialect of ancient Mongolic descent.
[4]
When the Tobgach destroyed the Rouran Empire, the Mongolic-speaking Avar people escaped into the Caspian steppes.
[4]
This displacement triggered a series of events. Settling in the Caucasus around 558, the Mongolic Avars intervened in Germanic tribal conflicts, forming alliances such as with the Lombards to overthrow the Gepidae, who were Byzantine allies.
[5]
Between 550 and 575, they solidified their presence by establishing the Khanate of the Mongolic Avars (6th to 8th century) in the Caspian and Hungarian steppes.
[5]
The modern
Kalmyks
of
Kalmykia
on the Caspian Sea in southeastern Europe are Oirats.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The
Mongol Empire
c. 1207
A fragment of a medieval Oirat map
The name derives from
Mongolic
oi
< *
hoi
("forest, woods") and
ard
< *
harad
("people"),
[6]
and they were counted among the "
forest people
" in the 13th century.
[7]
Similar to that is the
Turkic
a?ac eri
("woodman") that is found as a tribal name such as
Akatziri
, an ancient tribe among European
Huns
, and as a place name in many locales, including the corrupted name of the town of
Aghajari
in Iran. A second opinion believes the name derives from Mongolian word
oirt
(or
oirkhon
) meaning "close (as in distance)," as in "close/nearer ones."
The name Oirat may derive from a corruption of the group's original name
Dorben Oord
, meaning "The Allied Four". Perhaps inspired by the designation Dorben Oord, other Mongols at times used the term "Dochin Mongols" for themselves ("Dochin" meaning forty), but there was rarely as great a degree of unity among larger numbers of tribes as among the Oirats.
Writing system
[
edit
]
In the 17th century,
Zaya Pandita
,
[8]
a
Gelug
monk of the
Khoshut
tribe, devised a new writing system called
Clear Script
for use by Oirats. This system was developed on the basis of the older
Mongolian script
, but had a more developed system of
diacritics
to preclude misreading and reflected some lexical and grammatical differences of the
Oirat language
from
Mongolian
.
[9]
The Clear Script remained in use in
Kalmykia
until the mid-1920s when it was replaced by a
Latin alphabet
, and later the
Cyrillic script
. It can be seen in some public signs in the Kalmyk capital,
Elista
, and is superficially taught in schools. In Mongolia it was likewise replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1941. Some Oirats in
China
still use the Clear Script as their primary writing system, as well as Mongolian script.
A monument of Zaya Pandita was unveiled on the 400th anniversary of Zaya Pandita's birth, and on 350th anniversary of his creation of the Clear Script.
[10]
History
[
edit
]
The Oirats share some history, geography, culture and language with the
Eastern Mongols
, and were at various times united under the same leader as a larger Mongol entity, whether that ruler was of Oirat descent or of
Chingissids
.
Comprising the
Khoshut
(
Mongolian
: "хошууд",
ho?uud
), Choros or Olot ("??лд",
Oold
),
Torghut
("торгууд",
Torguud
), and
Dorbet
("д?рв?д",
Dorvod
) ethnic groups, they were dubbed Kalmyk or Kalmak, which means "remnant" or "to remain", by their western
Turkic
neighbours. Various sources also list the
Bargut
,
Buzava
,
Keraites
, and
Naiman
tribes as comprising part of the Dorben Oord; some tribes may have joined the original four only in later years. This name may however reflect the Kalmyks'
remaining
Buddhist
rather than converting to
Islam
; or the Kalmyks'
remaining
in the
Altay
region when the Turkic tribes migrated further west.
After the fall of the
Yuan dynasty
, Oirat and Eastern Mongols had developed separate identities to the point where Oirats called themselves "Four Oirats" while they used the term "Mongols" for those under the
Khagans
in the east.
[11]
Early history
[
edit
]
The Oirat ruler
Arghun Aqa
(damaged) in
T?r?kh-i Jah?n-Gush?
'The History of The World Conqueror", dated 1290. Suppl. Pers. 205 - Bibliotheque Nationale de France.
[12]
[13]
One of the earliest mentions of the Oirat people, in a historical text, can be found in the
Secret History of the Mongols
, a 13th century chronicle of
Genghis Khan
's rise to power. In “The Secret History”, the Oirats are counted among the "forest people", and are said to live under the rule of a shaman-chief known as
baki
. They lived in
Tuva
and the Mongolian
Khovsgol Province
; the Oirats moved south in the 14th century.
[14]
In one famous passage, the Oirat chief
Qutuqa Beki
used a
yada
, or 'thunder stone', to unleash a powerful storm on Genghis' army. The magical ploy backfired, however, when an unexpected wind blew the storm back towards him. During the early stages of Genghis' rise to power, the Oirats under Baki fought against Genghis but were defeated. The Oirats would then fully submit to Mongol rule after their ally,
Jamukha
, Genghis' childhood friend and later rival, was killed.
Subject to the
Khan
, the Oirats turned themselves into a loyal and formidable faction of the Mongol war machine. In 1207,
Jochi
, the eldest son of Genghis, subjugated the forest tribes, including the Oirats and the
Yenisei Kyrgyz
; the
Great Khan
gave those peoples to his son, Jochi, and had one of his daughters, Checheygen, marry chief Baki (or his son). There were notable Oirats in the
Mongol Empire
, such as
Arghun Agha
and his son,
Nowruz
.
In 1256, a group of the Oirats under Bukha-Temur (Mongolian: Буха-Т?м?р, Б?хт?м?р) joined
Hulagu's expedition against the Abbasids
and participated in the
Mongol campaign against the Nizaris
in Iran. The
Ilkhan
Hulagu and his successor,
Abagha
, resettled them in Turkey. Then, they took part in the
Second Battle of Homs
, where the Mongols were defeated.
[15]
The majority of the Oirats, who were left behind, supported
Ariq Boke
against
Kublai
in the
Toluid Civil War
. Kublai defeated his younger brother, and they entered the service of the victor.
[16]
In 1295, more than 10,000 Oirats under Targhai Khurgen, son-in-law of the
Borjigin
family, fled
Syria
, then under the
Mamluks
, as they were despised by both
Muslim Mongols
and local
Turks
. They were well-received by
Egypt
’s
Sultan
,
Al-Adil Kitbugha
, himself of Oirat origin.
[17]
Ali Pasha, the governor of
Baghdad
and head of an Oirat ruling family, went on to murder Ilkhan
Arpa Keun
, resulting in the disintegration of Mongol Persia. Since the Oirats were near both the
Chagatai Khanate
and the
Golden Horde
, they had strong ties with them, and many Mongol khans had Oirat wives.
After the expulsion of the
Yuan dynasty
from China, the Oirats reconvened as a loose alliance of the four major western Mongolian tribes (Mongolian:
д?рв?н ойрд
,
д?рв?н ойрaд
). The alliance grew, taking power in the remote region of the
Altai Mountains
, northwest of
Hami oasis
. Gradually, they spread eastwards, annexing territories then under the control of the Eastern Mongols. They hoped to reestablish a unified, nomadic rule under their banner of the Four Oirats (the Keraites, Naiman, Barghud, and old Oirats).
[18]
[19]
The only Borjigid ruling tribe was the Khoshuts; the others' rulers were not descendants of Genghis. The
Ming dynasty
of China had helped the Oirats' rise over the Mongols during the Yongle Emperor's reign after 1410, when the Ming defeated the Qubilaid
Oljei Temur
and the Borjigid power was weakened.
[20]
The Borjigid Khans were displaced from power by the Oirats (with Ming help), ruling as puppet-khans until the alliance between the Ming and Oirats ended, and the Yongle Emperor launched a campaign against them.
[21]
The greatest ruler of the Oirat Confederacy was
Esen Taishi
; he led the Oirats from 1438 to 1454, a time in which he unified Mongolia (both Inner and Outer) under his puppet-khan
Taisun Khan
. In 1449, Esen Tayisi and Taisun Khan mobilised their cavalry along the Chinese border and invaded
Ming China
, defeating and destroying the Ming defences at the
Great Wall
, along with the reinforcements sent to intercept his cavalry. In the process, the
Zhengtong Emperor
was captured at
Tumu
. The following year, Esen returned the emperor after an unsuccessful ransom attempt. After claiming the title of Khan (something which only blood descendants of Genghis Khan could do), Esen was killed; shortly afterwards, Oirat power declined.
From the 14th until the middle of the 18th century, the Oirats were often at war with the
Eastern Mongols
, but reunited with them during the rule of
Dayan Khan
and
Tumen Zasagt Khan
.
The Khoshut Khanate
[
edit
]
Tayiji (prince) of the
Torghuts
, one of the main Oirat tribes, and his wife (土爾扈特台吉).
Huang Qing Zhigong Tu
, 1769.
The Oirats converted to
Tibetan Buddhism
around 1615, and it was not long before they participated in the conflict between the
Gelug
and
Karma Kagyu
schools. At the request of the Gelug school, in 1637,
Gushi Khan
, the leader of the
Khoshuts
in Koko Nor, defeated
Choghtu Khong Tayiji
, the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school, and conquered
Amdo
(present-day
Qinghai
). The unification of
Tibet
followed in the early 1640s, with Gushi Khan proclaimed Khan of Tibet by the
5th Dalai Lama
and the establishment of the
Khoshut Khanate
. The title "
Dalai Lama
" itself was bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug
tulku
lineage by
Altan Khan
(not to be confused with the
Altan Khans of the Khalkha
), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom".
Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. In 1717, the
Dzungars
invaded Tibet and killed
Lha-bzang Khan
(or
Khoshut Khan
), a grandson of Gushi Khan and the fourth Khan of Tibet, and conquered the
Khoshut Khanate
.
The Zunghar Khanate at 1750 (light-blue color)
The Qing Empire defeated the
Dzungars
in the 1750s and proclaimed rule over the Oirats through a Manchu-Mongol alliance (a series of systematic arranged marriages between princes and princesses of Manchu with those of Khalkha Mongols and Oirat Mongols, which was set up as a royal policy carried out over 300 years), as well as over Khoshut-controlled Tibet.
In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Gushi Khan, took control of Amdo and tried to assume rule over the Khoshut Khanate. He fought against a Manchu-
Qing Dynasty
army, and was defeated only in the following year and 80,000 people from his tribe were executed by Manchu army due to his "rebellion attempt".
[22]
By that period, the Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000 and were mainly under the rule of Khalkha Mongol princes who were in a marital alliance with Manchu royal and noble families. Thus, Amdo fell under Manchu domination.
The Dzungar Khanate
[
edit
]
This map fragment shows territories of the
Zunghar Khanate
as in 1706 (Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675?1726)).
The 17th century saw the rise of another Oirat empire in the east, known as the Khanate of
Dzungaria
, which stretched from the
Great Wall of China
to present-day eastern
Kazakhstan
, and from present-day northern
Kyrgyzstan
to southern
Siberia
. It was the last empire of
nomads
, and was ruled by
Choros
noblemen.
The
Transition from Ming to Qing
dynasties in
China
occurred in the mid-17th century, and the Qing sought to protect its northern border by continuing the divide-and-rule policy their
Ming
predecessors had successfully instituted against the Mongols. The Manchu consolidated their rule over the Eastern Mongols of
Manchuria
. They then persuaded the Eastern Mongols of Inner Mongolia to submit themselves as
vassals
. Finally, the Eastern Mongols of Outer Mongolia sought the protection of the Manchu against the Dzungars.
In the 17th century, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of the ‘Military Revolution’ in central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They also created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. Additionally, the Zunghar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost the use of the Oirat language in the region.
[23]
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the
Dzungar population
was
wiped out by a combination of warfare and disease during the Manchu Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1755?1757
.
[24]
The Zunghar population reached 600,000 in 1755.
Most of the Choros,
Olot
,
Khoid
,
Baatud
, and
Zakhchin
Oirats who battled against the Qing were killed by Manchu soldiers and, after the fall of the
Dzungar Khanate
, became small ethnic groups.
Kalmyks
[
edit
]
Kalmyks live on the Caspian steppe. Their settlement and relationship with the Caspian steppes has a long history.
In early medieval times, the Mongolic-speaking Elut people established here a powerful khanate of the Avar Elut in the sixth century.
[5]
The first documented reference to
Elut
and
Yelut
(
Chinese
: 厄魯特,
El?te
) was in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century.
[4]
In early modern times,
Kho Orlok
, tayishi of the
Torghuts
, and Dalai Tayishi of
Dorbets
, led their people (200,000?250,000 people, mainly Torghuts) west to the (
Volga River
) in 1607 where they established the Kalmyk Khanate. By some accounts this move was precipitated by internal divisions or by the Khoshut tribe; other historians believe it more likely that the migrating clans were seeking pastureland for their herds, scarce in the central Asian highlands. Some of the Khoshut and Olot tribes joined the migration almost a century later. The Kalmyk migration had reached as far as the steppes of southeastern Europe by 1630. At the time, that area was inhabited by the
Nogai Horde
. But under pressure from Kalmyk warriors, the
Nogais
fled to
Crimea
and the
Kuban River
. Many other nomadic peoples in the Eurasian steppes subsequently became vassals of the Kalmyk Khanate, part of which is in the area of present-day
Kalmykia
.
[25]
The
Kalmyks
became allies of
Russia
and a treaty to protect southern Russian borders was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. Later they became nominal, then full subjects of the Russian Tsar. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of
Russia
. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000?350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.
[
citation needed
]
Russia gradually reduced the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. Policies encouraged establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures where the Kalmyks formerly roamed and fed their livestock. The
Russian Orthodox church
, by contrast, pressed
Buddhist
Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771 the oppression of czarist administration forced a larger part of Kalmyks (33,000 households or approximately 170,000 individuals) to migrate to Dzungaria.
[26]
200,000 (170,000)
[27]
Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the
Volga River
to Dzungaria, through the territories of their
Bashkir
and
Kazakh
enemies. The last Kalmyk khan
Ubashi
led the migration to restore the
Dzungar Khanate
and Mongolian independence.
[27]
As C. D. Barkman notes, "It is quite clear that the Torghuts had not intended to surrender to the Chinese, but had hoped to lead an independent existence in Dzungaria".
[28]
Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalry to the
Russo-Turkish War
in 1768?1769 to gain weapons before the migration. The Empress
Catherine the Great
ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and Catherine the Great abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.
[27]
[29]
[30]
The Kazakhs attacked them near
Balkhash Lake
. About 100,000?150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the
Volga River
could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed their influential nobles.
[27]
After seven months of travel, only one third (66,073)
[27]
of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Manchu Qing Empire).
[31]
The Qing Empire resettled the Kalmyks in five different areas to prevent their revolt and several Kalmyk leaders were soon killed by the Manchus. Following the Russian revolution their settlement was accelerated, Buddhism stamped out and herds collectivised.
Kalmykian
nationalists
and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate from Kalmykia to Mongolia in the 1920s when a serious famine gripped Kalmykia. On January 22, 1922, Mongolia proposed to accept the immigration of the Kalmyks but the Russian government refused. Some 71?72,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.
[32]
The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942?1943. In March 1927, Soviets deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, and
Karelia
.
[32]
The Kalmyks founded the sovereign
Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk
on March 22, 1930. The Oirat state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated a force of 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia, but the Oirat state was destroyed by the Soviet Army later that year. The Mongolian government suggested to accept the Mongols of the Soviet Union, including Kalmyks, but the Soviets rejected the proposal.
[32]
In 1943, the entire population of 120,000 Kalmyks were
deported
to Siberia by
Stalin
, accused of supporting invading Axis armies attacking
Stalingrad
(
Volgograd
); a fifth of the population is thought to have perished during and immediately after the deportation.
[33]
[34]
[35]
Around half (97?98,000) of the Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.
[36]
The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the
Kalmyk language
during the deportation.
[37]
[38]
[39]
Mongolian
leader
Khorloogiin Choibalsan
attempted to arrange migration of the deportees to Mongolia and he met them in
Siberia
during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of
genocide
, although many Russian historians
[
who?
]
treat this and similar deportations as an attempt to prevent local Russian populations and the Soviet army from lynching the entire ethnic group, many of whom
supported Germany
. Today Kalmyks are trying to revive their language and religion, but the shift towards the Russian language continues.
[
citation needed
]
According to the
Russian 2010 Census
there were 176,800 Kalmyks, of whom only 80,546 could speak the Kalmyk language, a serious decline from the level of the
2002 Census
, in which the number of speakers was 153,602 (with a total number of 173,996 people). The
Soviet 1989 Census
showed 156,386 Kalmyk-speakers with a total number of 173,821 Kalmyks.
Xinjiang Mongols
[
edit
]
Oirat ceremonial hat
The Mongols of
Xinjiang
form a minority, principally in the northern part of the region, numbering 194,500 in 2010, about 50,000 of which are
Dongxiangs
.
[40]
They are primarily descendants of the surviving
Torghuts
and
Khoshuts
who returned from
Kalmykia
, and of the
Chakhar
stationed there as garrison soldiers in the 18th century. The emperor had sent messages asking the Kalmyks to return, and erected a smaller copy of the
Potala
in
Jehol
(
Chengde
), (the country residence of the
Manchu Emperors
) to mark their arrival. A model copy of that "Little Potala" was made in China for the
Swedish
explorer
Sven Hedin
, and was erected at the
World's Columbian Exposition
in
Chicago
in 1893. It is now in storage in
Sweden
, where there are plans to re-erect it. Some of the returnees did not come that far and still live, now as Muslims, at the southwestern end of Lake
Issyk-kul
in present-day
Kyrgyzstan
.
In addition to exiling Han criminals to Xinjiang to be slaves of the Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to
China proper
where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.
[41]
In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by
Zhang Wenqing
(張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like
Ma Jinlu
(馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.
[42]
The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and slavery under Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.
[43]
Alasha Mongols
[
edit
]
The region bordering
Gansu
and west of the Irgay River
[
where?
]
is called
Alxa
or Ala?a, Alshaa and Mongols who moved there are called Alasha Mongols.
Torbaih
Gushi Khan
's fourth son, Ayush, was opposed to the Khan's brother Baibagas. Ayush's eldest son is Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli. After the battle between
Galdan Boshigt Khan
and Ochirtu Sechen Khan, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli moved to
Tsaidam
with his 10,000 households. The fifth
Dalai Lama
wanted land for them from the
Qing
government, thus in 1686, the Emperor permitted them to reside in Alasha.
In 1697, Alasha Mongols were administered in 'khoshuu' and 'sum' units. A khoshuu with eight sums was created, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli was appointed Beil (prince), and Alasha was thus a 'zasag-khoshuu'. Alasha was however like an 'aimag' and never administered under a 'chuulgan'.
In 1707, when Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli died, his son Abuu succeeded him. He was in
Beijing
from his youth, served as bodyguard of the Emperor, and a princess (of the Emperor) was given to him, thus making him a 'Khoshoi Tavnan', i.e. Emperor's groom. In 1793, Abuu became Jun Wang. There are several thousand Muslim Alasha Mongols.
[44]
Ejine Mongols
[
edit
]
Mongols who lived along the
Ejin River
(
Ruo Shui
) descended from Rabjur, a grandson of Torghut Ayuka Khan from the Volga River.
In 1698, Rabjur, with his mother, younger sister and 500 people, went to Tibet to pray. While they were returning via Beijing in 1704, the Qing ruler, the
Kangxi Emperor
, let them stay there for some years and later organized a 'khoshuu' for them in a place called Sertei, and made Rabjur the governor.
In 1716, the
Kangxi Emperor
sent him and his people to
Hami
, near the border of Qing China and the Zunghar Khanate, for intelligence-gathering purposes against the Oirats. When Rabjur died, his eldest son, Denzen, succeeded him. He was afraid of the Zunghar and wanted the Qing government to allow them to move away from the border. They were settled in Dalan Uul?Altan. When Denzen died in 1740, his son Lubsan Darjaa succeeded him and became Beil.
In 1753, they were settled on the banks of the Ejin River and the Ejin River Torghut 'khoshuu' was thus formed.
[45]
Culture
[
edit
]
![[icon]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png) | This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
July 2023
)
|
Further information on the Mongol folk song:
Bumburjan
Origins and genetics
[
edit
]
Haplogroup C2*-Star Cluster which was thought to be carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan and Niruns (original Mongols and descendants of
Alan Gua
) appears in only 1.6% of Oirats.
[46]
The Y-chromosome in 426 individuals mainly from three major tribes of the Kalmyks (the
Torghut
,
Dorbet
and
Khoshut
):
[47]
C-M48
: 38.7
C-M407: 10.8
N1c: 10.1
R2
: 7.7
O2
: 6.8
C2 (not M407, not M48): 6.6
O1b
: 5.2
R1
: 4.9
Others: 9.2
Haplogroup C2*-Star Cluster appeared in only 2% (3% of Dorbet and 2.7% of the Torghut).
Tribes
[
edit
]
Sart Kalmyks and
Xinjiang
Oirats are not Volga Kalmyks or Kalmyks, and the Kalmyks are a subgroup of the Oirats.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Minahan, James B. (10 February 2014).
Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia
. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 209.
ISBN
9781610690188
.
- ^
Robert de Vaugondy〈亞洲圖〉
國立臺灣歷史博物館典藏網
- ^
Owen Lattimore
,
The Desert Road to Turkestan
. (For Lattimore, Euleuths are "the great western group of tribes which marks in all probability a primitive racial cleavage" (p. 101 in the ca. 1929 edition). Lattimore further (p. 139 refers to Samuel Couling of
The Encyclopaedia Sinica
(1917), according to whom the spelling "Eleuth" was due to French missionaries, representing the sound of something like
Olot
. Into Chinese, the same name was transcribed as (Pinyin: Elute; Mongolian:
Olot
).))
- ^
a
b
c
d
Bougdaeva, Saglar (2024).
"The Yelu Language of War and Peace: A Revised Oirad Translation of the Altai Runic Inscriptions (6th?9th centuries)"
.
Central Asiatic Journal
.
66
(1?2): 27?46.
- ^
a
b
c
"Ancient genomes reveal origin and rapid trans-Eurasian migration of 7th century Avar elites"
. Retrieved
2024-03-28
.
- ^
M.Sanjdorj, History of the Mongolian People's Republic, Volume I, 1966
- ^
郭?? (1984). "厄?特蒙古?史??中的一些??".
Social Sciences in Xinjiang
(in Chinese) (03): 125?130.
ISSN
1009-5330
.
Wikidata
Q114696375
.
- ^
N. Yakhontova,
The Mongolian and Oirat Translations of the Sutra of Golden Light
, 2006
Archived
May 19, 2011, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Masson, Vadim Mikha?lovich (2003).
History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century
. UNESCO. p. 169.
ISBN
978-92-3-103876-1
.
- ^
Bassin, Mark
;
Kelly, Catriona
(2012).
Soviet and Post-Soviet Identities
. Cambridge University Press. p. 202.
ISBN
978-1-107-01117-5
.
- ^
Crossley 2006
, p. 64.
- ^
Jaber, Shady (2021).
"The Paintings of al-?th?r al-B?qiya of al-B?r?n?: A Turning Point in Islamic Visual Representation"
(PDF)
.
Lebanese American University
: Figure 5.
- ^
Lane, George (1999).
"Arghun Aqa: Mongol Bureaucrat"
.
Iranian Studies
.
32
(4): 459?482.
doi
:
10.1080/00210869908701965
.
ISSN
0021-0862
.
JSTOR
4311297
.
Juvaini's depiction of Arghun Aqa
The picture painted of the Mongol amir in the
T?r?kh-i Jah?n-Gush?
dates from this period.
- ^
History of Mongolia, Volume II, 2003
- ^
Reuven Amitai Press,
The Mongols and the Mamluks
, p.94
- ^
James Waterson, John Man.
The Knights of Islam
, p.205
- ^
James Waterson, John Man.
The Knights of Islam
, p.205
- ^
eds. Wezler, Hammerschmidt 1992
, p. 194.
- ^
Anglo-Mongolian Society 1983
, p. 1.
- ^
A Regional Handbook on Northwest China, Volume 1 1956
, p. 53.
- ^
"Islamic Culture"
. Deccan. 1 January 1971
. Retrieved
4 December
2016
– via Google Books.
- ^
БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГ?Й МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУД
Archived
2013-11-15 at the
Wayback Machine
(Mongolian)
- ^
Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)".
Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies
.
51
: 170?185.
- ^
Michael Edmund Clarke,
In the Eye of Power
(doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37
Archived
July 6, 2011, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Rene Grousset
The Empire of the Steppes
, p.521
- ^
Government of the Republic of Kalmykia: Kalm.ru
Archived
June 13, 2013, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
ТИВ ДАМНАСАН Н??ДЭЛ
(Mongolian)
- ^
Perdue, Peter C. (30 June 2009).
China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia
. Harvard University Press.
ISBN
9780674042025
. Retrieved
4 December
2016
– via Google Books.
- ^
Maksimov, Konstantin Nikolaevich (1 January 2008).
Kalmykia in Russia's Past and Present National Policies and Administrative System
. Central European University Press.
ISBN
9789639776173
. Retrieved
4 December
2016
– via Google Books.
- ^
К вопросу о бегстве волжских калмыков в Джунгарию в 1771 году
Archived
2012-07-25 at the
Wayback Machine
(Russian)
- ^
Michael Khodarkovsky (2002).
Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500?1800
. Indiana University Press. p.142.
ISBN
0253217709
- ^
a
b
c
XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт ?лсг?л?нд автсан
Archived
2013-10-31 at the
Wayback Machine
(Mongolian)
- ^
Minorityrights.org
Archived
2014-01-18 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"rohan.sdsu.edu"
. Archived from
the original
on 2014-02-01
. Retrieved
2014-01-20
.
- ^
"Central and Inner Asia Studies (CIAS) - Overview"
. Archived from
the original
on 2014-01-21
. Retrieved
2017-09-07
.
- ^
"Regions and territories: Kalmykia"
.
BBC News
. 29 November 2011
. Retrieved
4 December
2016
.
- ^
"Kalmyk: An ostracized language in Russia - Language webzine by Freelang"
. 17 April 2013
. Retrieved
4 December
2016
.
- ^
ling.hawaii.edu
Archived
2015-06-15 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Deportation of the Kalmyks (1943?1956): Stigmatized Ethnicity
- ^
James A. Millward
Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang
, p. 89
- ^
Yongwei, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0188-2740-032, QL 43.3.30 (April 26, 1778).
- ^
?ande 善德, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3238-046, QL 54.5.6 (May 30, 1789) and ?ande, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3248-028, QL 54.6.30 (August 20, 1789).
- ^
1789 Mongol Code (Ch. 蒙履 Menggu luli, Mo. Mongγol ?aγa?in-u bi?ig), (Ch. 南省,給駐防爲, Mo. emun-e-tu muji-dur ?olegulju sergeyilen sakiγ?i quyaγ-ud-tur boγul bolγ-a). Mongol Code 蒙例 (Beijing: Lifan yuan, 1789; reprinted Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968), p. 124. Batsukhin Bayarsaikhan, Mongol Code (Mongγol ?aγa?in ? u bi?ig), Monumenta Mongolia IV (Ulaanbaatar: Centre for Mongol Studies, National University of Mongolia, 2004), p. 142.
- ^
James Stuart Olson
An ethnohistorical dictionary of China
, p. 242
- ^
Xiaoyuan Liu
Reins of liberation
, p. 36
- ^
V. Derenko, M; Malyarchuk, Boris; Wo?niak, Marcin; Denisova, Galina; Dambueva, Irina; M. Dorzhu, C; Grzybowski, Tomasz; Zakharov-Gezekhus, Ilya (2007-03-01).
"Distribution of the male lineages of Genghis Khan's descendants in northern Eurasian populations"
.
Russian Journal of Genetics
.
43
(3): 334?337.
doi
:
10.1134/S1022795407030179
.
PMID
17486763
.
S2CID
24976689
.
- ^
"Y-chromosome diversity in the Kalmyks at the ethnical and tribal levels"
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Kempf, Bela: 'Ethnonyms and etymology - The case of Oyrat and beyond'. In:
Ural-Altaische Jahrbucher
. 24: 2010-11, pp. 189-203
- Khoyt S.K. Last data by localisation and number of oyirad (oirat) (htm republication) - in Russian
Archived
2010-07-05 at the
Wayback Machine
- Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004).
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
. Routledge.
ISBN
1134362226
. Retrieved
10 March
2014
.
- Haines, R Spencer (2015). "Myth, Misconception, and Motive for the Zunghar Intervention in Khalkha Mongolia in the 17th Century".
Paper Presented at the Third Open Conference on Mongolian Studies, Canberra, ACT, Australia
. The Australian National University.
- Haines, R Spencer (2016). "The Physical Remains of the Zunghar Legacy in Central Eurasia: Some Notes from the Field".
Paper Presented at the Social and Environmental Changes on the Mongolian Plateau Workshop, Canberra, ACT, Australia
. The Australian National University.
- Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)".
Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies
.
51
. International Association of Mongolists: 170?185.
- Millward, James A. (1998).
Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864
(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press.
ISBN
0804729336
. Retrieved
10 March
2014
.
- Wang Jinglan, Shao Xingzhou, Cui Jing et al.
Anthropological survey on the Mongolian Tuerhute tribe in He shuo county, Xinjiang Uigur autonomous region // Acta anthropologica sinica. Vol. XII, № 2. May 1993. p. 137-146.
- Санчиров В. П.
О Происхождении этнонима торгут и народа, носившего это название // Монголо-бурятские этнонимы: cб. ст. ? Улан-Удэ: БНЦ СО РАН, 1996. C. 31?50. - in Russian
- Ovtchinnikova O., Druzina E., Galushkin S., Spitsyn V., Ovtchinnikov I.
An Azian-specific 9-bp deletion in region V of mitochondrial DNA is found in Europe // Medizinische Genetic. 9 Tahrestagung der Gesellschaft fur Humangenetik, 1997, p. 85.
- Galushkin S.K., Spitsyn V.A., Crawford M.H.
Genetic Structure of Mongolic-speaking Kalmyks // Human Biology, December 2001, v.73, no. 6, pp. 823?834.
- Хойт С.К.
Генетическая структура европейских ойратских групп по локусам ABO, RH, HP, TF, GC, ACP1, PGM1, ESD, GLO1, SOD-A // Проблемы этнической истории и культуры тюрко-монгольских народов. Сборник научных трудов. Вып. I. Элиста: КИГИ РАН, 2009. с. 146-183. - in Russian
- hamagmongol.narod.ru/library/khoyt_2008_r.htm
Хойт С.К.
Антропологические характеристики калмыков по данным исследователей XVIII-XIX вв. // Вестник Прикаспия: археология, история, этнография. № 1. Элиста: Изд-во КГУ, 2008. с. 220-243.
- Хойт С.К.
Кереиты в этногенезе народов Евразии: историография проблемы. Элиста: Изд-во КГУ, 2008. ? 82 с
.
ISBN
978-5-91458-044-2
(Khoyt S.K. Kereits in enthnogenesis of peoples of Eurasia: historiography of the problem. Elista: Kalmyk State University Press, 2008. ? 82 p. (in Russian))
- hamagmongol.narod.ru/library/khoyt_2012_r.htm
Хойт С.К.
Калмыки в работах антропологов первой половины XX вв. // Вестник Прикаспия: археология, история, этнография. № 3, 2012. с. 215-245.
- Boris Malyarchuk, Miroslava Derenko, Galina Denisova, Sanj Khoyt, Marcin Wozniak, Tomasz Grzybowski and Ilya Zakharov
Y-chromosome diversity in the Kalmyks at the ethnical and tribal levels // Journal of Human Genetics (2013), 1?8.
- Хойт С.К.
Этническая история ойратских групп. Элиста, 2015. 199 с. (Khoyt S.K. Ethnic history of oyirad groups. Elista, 2015. 199 p. in russian)
- Joo-Yup Lee
Were the historical Oirats “Western Mongols”? An examination of their uniqueness in relation to the Mongols // Etudes mongoles & siberiennes, centrasiatiques & tibetaines (47/2016)
- Хойт С.К.
Данные фольклора для изучения путей этногенеза ойратских групп
// Международная научная конференция ≪Сетевое востоковедение: образование, наука, культура≫, 7-10 декабря 2017 г.: материалы. Элиста: Изд-во Калм. ун-та, 2017. с. 286-289. (in russian)
- Ли Чжиюань. О происхождении хойдского народа // Международная научная конференция ≪Сетевое востоковедение: образование, наука, культура≫, 7-10 декабря 2017 г.: материалы. Элиста: Изд-во Калм. ун-та, 2017. с. 436-445. (in Mongol)
External links
[
edit
]