Byzantine emperor from 963 to 969
Nikephoros II Phokas
(
Greek
:
Νικηφ?ρο? Φωκ??
,
Nik?phoros Ph?kas
;
c.
912
? 11 December 969),
Latinized
Nicephorus II Phocas
, was
Byzantine emperor
from 963 to 969. His career, not uniformly successful in matters of statecraft or of war, nonetheless greatly contributed to the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire during the 10th century. In the east, Nikephoros completed the conquest of
Cilicia
and retook the islands of
Crete
and
Cyprus
, opening the path for subsequent Byzantine incursions reaching as far as
Upper Mesopotamia
and the
Levant
; these campaigns earned him the
sobriquet
"pale death of the
Saracens
".
Early life and career
[
edit
]
Nikephoros Phokas was born around 912. From his paternal side, he belonged to the
Phokas family
which had produced several distinguished generals, including Nikephoros' father
Bardas Phokas
, brother
Leo Phokas
, and grandfather
Nikephoros Phokas the Elder
, who had all served as commanders of the field army (
domestikos t?n schol?n
). From his maternal side he belonged to the
Maleinoi
, a powerful Anatolian Greek family which had settled in
Cappadocia
.
[3]
[4]
Early in his life Nikephoros had married Stephano. She had died before he rose to fame, and after her death he took an oath of chastity.
Early Eastern campaigns
[
edit
]
Nikephoros joined the army at an early age. He was appointed the military governor of the
Anatolic Theme
in 945 under Emperor
Constantine VII
. In 954 or 955 Nikephoros was promoted to
Domestic of the Schools
, replacing his father,
Bardas Phokas
, who had suffered a series of defeats by the
Hamdanids
and by the
Abbasids
. The new position essentially placed Nikephoros in charge of the eastern Byzantine army. From 955, the Hamdanids in
Aleppo
entered a period of unbroken decline until their destruction in 1002. In June 957 Nikephoros managed to capture and destroy
Adata.
The Byzantines continued to push their advantage against the Arabs until the collapse of the Hamdanids, except for the period from 960 to 961, when the army turned its focus to the
reconquest of Crete
.
Conquest of Crete
[
edit
]
From the ascension of Emperor
Romanos II
in 959, Nikephoros and his younger brother
Leo Phokas
were placed in charge of the eastern and western field armies respectively. In 960, 27,000
oarsmen
and
marines
were assembled to man a fleet of 308 ships carrying 50,000 troops.
At the recommendation of the influential minister
Joseph Bringas
, Nikephoros was entrusted to lead this expedition against the Muslim
Emirate of Crete
, and he led his fleet to the island and defeated a minor Arab force upon disembarking near Almyros. He soon began a nine-month siege of the fortress town of
Chandax
, where his forces suffered through the winter due to supply issues.
Following a failed assault and many raids into the countryside, Nikephoros entered Chandax on 6 March 961 and soon wrested control of the entire island from the Muslims.
Upon returning to
Constantinople
, he was denied the usual honor of a
triumph
, but was permitted an
ovation
in the
Hippodrome
.
Later Eastern campaigns
[
edit
]
Following the conquest of Crete, Nikephoros returned to the east and marched a large and well-equipped army into
Cilicia
. In February 962 he captured
Anazarbos
, while the major city of
Tarsus
ceased to recognize the Hamdanid Emir of
Aleppo
,
Sayf al-Dawla
.
Nikephoros continued to ravage the Cilician countryside, defeating the governor of Tarsus,
ibn al-Zayyat
, in open battle; al-Zayyat later committed suicide on account of the loss. Thereafter, Nikephoros returned to the regional capital of
Caesarea
. Upon the beginning of the new campaigning season al-Dawla entered the Byzantine Empire to conduct raids, a strategy which left Aleppo dangerously undefended. Nikephoros soon took
Syrian Hierapolis
.
In December, an army split between Nikephoros and
John I Tzimiskes
marched towards Aleppo
, quickly routing an opposing force led by
Naja al-Kasaki
. Al-Dawla's force caught up with the Byzantines, but he too was routed, and Nikephoros and Tzimiskes entered Aleppo on 24 December.
The loss of the city would prove to be both a strategic and moral disaster for the Hamdanids. It was probably on these campaigns that Nikephoros earned the sobriquet "The Pale Death of the Saracens".
[12]
Ascension to the throne
[
edit
]
On 15 March 963, Emperor Romanos II died unexpectedly at the age of twenty-six of uncertain cause. Both contemporary sources and later historians seem to either believe that the young Emperor had exhausted his health with the excesses of his sexual life and his heavy drinking, or suspect that the Empress
Theophano
(c. 941?after 976), his wife, poisoned him. Theophano had already gained a reputation as an intelligent and ambitious woman. Unfavorable accounts of her by later historians would characterize her as a woman known for ruthlessness in achieving her goals. Romanos had already
crowned as co-emperors
his two sons
Basil II
and
Constantine VIII
. At the time that Romanos died, however, Basil was five years old and Constantine only three years old, so Theophano was named
regent
.
Theophano, however, was not allowed to rule alone.
Joseph Bringas
, the
eunuch
palace official who had become Romanos' chief councilor, maintained his position. According to contemporary sources he intended to keep authority in his own hands. He also tried to reduce the power of Nikephoros Phokas. The victorious general had been accepted as the actual commander of the army and maintained a strong connection to the aristocracy. Bringas was afraid that Nikephoros would attempt to claim the throne with the support of both the army and the aristocracy. This is exactly what he did. On July 2 in Caesarea, his armies, along with his highest-ranking officers, proclaimed Nikephoros emperor. From his position in Caesarea, and in advance of the news of his proclamation as emperor, Nikephoros sent a fleet to secure the
Bosphorus Strait
against his enemies.
Around the same time, he appointed Tzimiskes as Domestic of the East, now taking on the formal roles of emperor. He then sent a letter to Constantinople requesting to be accepted as co-emperor. In response, Bringas locked down the city, forcing Nikephoros' father
Bardas Phokas
to seek sanctuary in the
Hagia Sophia
, while his brother
Leo Phokas
escaped the city in disguise. Bringas was able to garner some support within the city from a few high-ranking officers, namely
Marianos Argyros
, but he himself was not a skilled orator and was unable to obtain the support of other popular officials such as the Patriarch
Polyeuctus
and the general
Basil Lekapenos
. The people of Constantinople soon turned against his cause, killing Argyros in a riot and soon forcing Bringas to flee.
On August 16, Nikephoros was proclaimed emperor and married the empress Theophano.
[16]
Reign
[
edit
]
Western Wars
[
edit
]
Nikephoros II was not very successful in his western wars. Under his reign, relations with the
Bulgarians
worsened. It is likely that he bribed the
Kievan Rus'
to raid the Bulgarians in retaliation for them not blocking
Magyar
raids.
This breach in relations triggered a decades-long decline in Byzantine-Bulgarian diplomacy and was a prelude to the wars fought between the Bulgarians and later Byzantine emperors, particularly
Basil II
.
Nikephoros' first military failures came in
Sicily
. In 962 the son of the governor of
Fatimid Sicily
,
Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi
, captured and reduced the Byzantine city of
Taormina
. The last major Byzantine stronghold in Sicily,
Rometta
, appealed to the newly crowned emperor Nikephoros for aid against the approaching Muslim armies. Nikephoros renounced his payments of tribute to the
Fatimid
caliphs
, and sent a huge fleet, purportedly boasting a crew of around 40,000 men, under
Patrikios Niketas
and
Manuel Phokas
, to the island. The Byzantine forces, however, were swiftly routed in Rometta and at the
Battle of the Straits
, and Rometta soon fell to the Muslims, completing the Islamic conquest of Sicily.
In 967, the Byzantines and the Fatimids hastily concluded a peace treaty to cease hostilities in Sicily. Both empires had grander issues to attend to: the Fatimids were preparing to invade
Egypt
, and tensions were flaring up on mainland Italy between the Byzantines and the German emperor
Otto I
. The constant tension between the Germans and the Byzantines was largely due to mutual cultural biases, but also to the fact that both empires claimed to be the successors of the
Roman Empire
.
Conflicts in southern Italy were preceded by religious contests between the two empires and by the malicious writings of
Liutprand of Cremona
. Otto first invaded Byzantine
Apulia
in 968 and failed to take
Bari
. Early the next year, he once again moved against Byzantine Apulia and
Calabria
, but, unable to capture
Cassano
or
Bovino
, failed to make any progress. In May he returned north, leaving
Pandulf Ironhead
to take charge of the siege. Pandulf was defeated and taken prisoner by the Byzantine general Eugenios, who went on to besiege
Capua
and enter
Salerno
. The two empires would continue to skirmish with each other until after the reign of Nikephoros, but neither side was able to make permanent or significant gains.
[
citation needed
]
Eastern Wars
[
edit
]
From 964 to 965, Nikephoros led an army of 40,000 men which conquered Cilicia and conducted raids in
Upper Mesopotamia
and
Syria
, while the patrician
Niketas Chalkoutzes
recovered
Cyprus
.
In the spring of 964, Nikephorus headed east. During the summer he captured
Anazarbos
and
Adana
before withdrawing. Later that year, Nikephoros attempted to quickly take
Mopsuestia
, but failed, returning to Caesarea. It was around this time that
Niketas Chalkoutzes
instigated a coup in
Cyprus
, which at the time was a shared condominium between the Byzantines and the Arabs. In the summer of 965, the conquest of Cilicia began in earnest. Nikephorus and Tzimiskes seized Mopsuestia July 13, while
Leo Phokas
invested
Tarsus
and Nikephoros and Tzimiskes arrived soon after. Nikephoros won a pitched battle against the Tarsiots, routing their forces with his "ironclad horsemen", referencing the Byzantine
cataphracts
. Within a fortnight, on August 16, Tarsus surrendered. Nikephoros allowed the inhabitants to depart unharmed before the city was plundered by his army. With the fall of these two strongholds, Cilicia was in the hands of the Byzantines.
In June 966, there was an exchange of prisoners between Sayf al-Dawla and the Byzantines, held at
Samosata
.
In October 966, Nikephoros led an expedition to raid
Amida
,
Dara
and
Nisibis
, then he marched towards
Hierapolis
, where he took a relic with the image of Jesus to be later placed in the
Church of the Virgin of the Pharos
in Constantinople.
He later sent a detachment to
Barbalissos
which returned with 300 prisoners, then he went to raid
Wadi Butnan
,
Chalcis
,
Tizin
and
Artah
, before laying siege to Antioch, but it was abandoned after eight days due to the lack of supplies.
In 967 or 968, Nikephoros annexed the Armenian state of
Taron
by diplomacy,
in addition to
Arzen
and
Martyropolis
.
In October 968, Nikephoros conducted another expedition which started by besieging Antioch for thirteen days,
then he went south raiding and sacking most of the fortresses and cities along his path including
Maarrat Misrin
,
Arra
,
Capharda
,
Larissa
,
Epiphania
and
Emesa
in the
Orontes
valley until he reached the city of
Tripoli
, then he went to take
Arca
,
Antarados
,
Maraclea
,
Gabala
and received the submission of
Laodicea
.
His aim was to cut off
Antioch
from its allies: the city was unsuccessfully blockaded two times in 966 and 968, and so the emperor decided to take it by hunger (so as not to damage to city) and left a detachment (a taxiarchy) of 1500 men in the fort of
Pagrae
, which lies on the road from Antioch to
Alexandretta
. The commander of the fort, the patrikios
Michael Bourtzes
, disobeyed the emperor's orders and
took Antioch
with a surprise attack, supported by the troops of the stratopedarch Petros, eunuch of the Phokas family. Bourtzes was disgraced for his insubordination, and later joined the plot that killed Phokas.
Civil administration
[
edit
]
Nikephoros' popularity was largely based on his conquests. Due to the resources he allocated to his army, Nikephoros was compelled to exercise a rigid economic policy in other departments. He retrenched court largess and curtailed the immunities of the clergy, and while he had an
ascetic
disposition, he forbade the foundation of new
monasteries
. By his heavy imposts and the debasement of the
Byzantine currency
, along with the enforcement and implementation of taxes across the centralized regions of the empire, he forfeited his popularity with the people and gave rise to riots.
Nikephoros also disagreed with the church on theological grounds. He wished the church to elevate those soldiers who died in battle against the Saracens to the positions of martyrs in the church ? similar to the status of "
Shahid
" which the Emperor's Muslim foes bestowed on their own fallen soldiers. In the Christian context, this was a highly controversial and unpopular demand.
In 967, he sparked a controversy in the capital by making a display of his military maneuvers in the Hippodrome similar in style to those displayed by the emperor
Justinian
centuries earlier preceding the
Nika riots
and its violent suppression within the stadium itself. The crowd within the Hippodrome panicked and began a stampede to retreat from the stadium, resulting in numerous deaths.
[
citation needed
]
Nikephoros was the author of extant treatises on military tactics, most famously the
Praecepta Militaria
, which contains valuable information on the art of war in his time, and the less-known
On Skirmishing
(
Medieval Greek
:
Περ? Παραδρομ?? Πολ?μου
), which concerned guerrilla-like tactics for defense against a superior enemy invasion force along the eastern frontier; though it purports that the tactics were no longer needed since the danger of the Muslim states to the east had subsided.
It is likely that this latter work, at least, was not composed by the Emperor but rather for him; translator and editor George T. Dennis suggests that it was perhaps written by his brother Leo Phokas, then Domestic of the West.
[31]
Nikephoros was a very devout man, and he helped his friend, the
monk Athanasios
, found the monastery of
Great Lavra
on
Mount Athos
.
[32]
Assassination
[
edit
]
The plot to assassinate Nikephoros began when he dismissed
Michael Bourtzes
from his position following his disobedience in the siege of Antioch. Bourtzes was disgraced, and he would soon find an ally with whom to plot against Nikephoros. Towards the end of 965, Nikephoros had John Tzimiskes exiled to eastern Asia Minor for suspected disloyalty, but was recalled on the pleading of Nikephoros' wife, Theophano. According to
Joannes Zonaras
and
John Skylitzes
, Nikephoros had a loveless relationship with Theophano. He was leading an ascetic life, whereas she was secretly having an affair with Tzimiskes. Theophano and Tzimiskes plotted to overthrow the emperor. On the night of the deed, she left Nikephoros' bedchamber door unlocked, and he was assassinated in his apartment by Tzimiskes and his entourage on 11 December 969.
[16]
He died praying to the mother of God. Following his death, the Phokas family broke into insurrection under Nikephoros' nephew
Bardas Phokas
, but their revolt was promptly subdued as Tzimiskes ascended the throne.
Legacy
[
edit
]
Contemporary descriptions
[
edit
]
The tension between East and West resulting from the policies pursued by Nikephoros may be glimpsed in the unflattering description of him and his court by Bishop
Liutprand of Cremona
in his
Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana
.
[33]
His description of Nikephoros was clouded by the ill-treatment he received while on a diplomatic mission to Constantinople. Nikephoros, a man of war, was not apt at diplomacy. To add insult to injury,
Pope John XIII
sent a letter to Nikephoros while Liutprand was in Constantinople calling
Otto I
Emperor of Rome and even more insultingly referring to Nikephoros merely as Emperor of the Greeks. Liutprand failed in his goal of procuring an Imperial princess as a wife for Otto's young son, the future emperor
Otto II
.
Bishop Liutprand
described Nikephoros as:
- ...a monstrosity of a man, a pygmy, fat-headed and like a mole as to the smallness of his eyes; disgusting with his short, broad, thick, and half hoary beard; disgraced by a neck an inch long; very bristly through the length and thickness of his hair; in color an Ethiopian; one whom it would not be pleasant to meet in the middle of the night; with extensive belly, lean of loin, very long of hip considering his short stature, small of shank, proportionate as to his heels and feet; clad in a garment costly but too old, and foul-smelling and faded through age; shod with Sicyonian shoes; bold of tongue, a fox by nature, in perjury, and lying a Ulysses.
[34]
Whereas Bishop Liutprand describes the emperor's hair as being bristly,
Leo the Deacon
says it was black with "tight curls" and "unusually long".
John Julius Norwich says, about his murder and burial, "It was a honourable place; but Nikephoros Phocas, the White Death of the Saracens, hero of Syria and Crete, saintly and hideous, magnificent and insufferable, had deserved a better end".
Descendants
[
edit
]
During the last decades of the tenth century, the Phokades repeatedly tried to get their hands again on the throne, and almost succeeded when Nikephoros' nephew,
Bardas Phokas the Younger
, rebelled against the rule of Basil II. His death, possibly by cardiac arrest, put an end to the rebellion, and ultimately to the political prominence of the Phokades, although Bardas the Younger's own son,
Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos
, launched another abortive revolt in 1022 along with
Nikephoros Xiphias
.
Praecepta Militaria
[
edit
]
Phokas was the author of a military manual, the
Praecepta Militaria
.
[36]
[37]
Modern honours
[
edit
]
On 19 November 2004, the
Hellenic Navy
named its tenth
Kortenaer
-class frigate
in his honour as
Nikiforos Fokas
F-466
(formerly HNLMS
Bloys Van Treslong
F-824). Also, in the
Rethymno regional unit
in Crete, a municipality (
Nikiforos Fokas
) is named after him, as are many streets throughout Greece.
In popular culture
[
edit
]
Nikephoros II appears as a character in:
- Frederic Harrison
,
Theophano: The crusade of the tenth century
(1904). 978-1017148909
- Frederic Harrison
,
Nicephorus: A tragedy of New Rome
(1906). 978-1290581578
- Anastasia Revi,
Byzantium 00AD
(Stage play 2000).
- Jonathan Harris
,
Theosis
(2023). 979-8668071487
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Burke, John (2014). I. Nilsson; P. Stephenson (eds.).
"Inventing and re-inventing Byzantium: Nikephoros Phokas, Byzantine Studies in Greece, and 'New Rome'
"
.
Wanted: Byzantium. The Desire for a Lost Emperor
: 5?10.
- ^
Krsmanovi? 2003
,
Chapter 2
: "The Maleinos lineage was among the members of the old byzantine aristocracy, emerging during the 9th century. It was a family of greek origin with close bonds to the region of Asia Minor. It has been presumed that the surname Maleinos is related to the name place Malagina of Bithynia, a location in the theme of Boukellarion during the 9th century. If one accepts that presumption, one should look for the old estates of the family in the fertile valley of the Sangarios river. It is safe, however, to consider the region of Charsianon as the homeland of the family, according to evidence dating back to the end of the 9th century, or the whole of Cappadocia in a wider sense. It is known that the members of the wealthy Maleinos family had estates in the area of jurisdiction of the theme of Charsianon, the wider region of Caesarea of Cappadocia and Ankyra of Galatia."
- ^
Kazhdan 1991
, p. 1276.
- ^
Gregory, Timothy E. (2010).
A History of Byzantium
. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
ISBN
978-1-4443-5997-8
.
- ^
a
b
Leo the Deacon
(c. 1000).
History
.
Dumbarton Oaks
. pp.
98
?
143
.
ISBN
978-0-88402-324-1
.
- ^
George T. Dennis,
Three Byzantine Military Treatises
, (Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2008), p. 139.
- ^
Speake, Graham (2018).
A history of the Athonite Commonwealth: the spiritual and cultural diaspora of Mount Athos
. New York.
ISBN
978-1-108-34922-2
.
OCLC
1041501028
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
H. Mayr-Harting,
Liudprand of Cremona’s Account of his Legation to Constantinople (968) and Ottonian Imperial Strategy
,
English Historical Review
(2001), pp. 539?56.
- ^
Liutprand of Cremona (968),
Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana ad Nicephorum Phocam
- ^
Sowing the dragon's teeth : Byzantine warfare in the tenth century
. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 1995. p. 178.
ISBN
978-0-88402-224-4
.
- ^
Luttwak, Edward (2009).
The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire
. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 363.
ISBN
978-0-674-03519-5
.
Sources
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edit
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The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the Fourth Century of the Hijra, Tenth Century CE
. The Medieval Mediterranean. Vol. 30. Leiden: Brill.
ISBN
9004117415
.
-
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
public domain
:
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911). "
Nicephorus
".
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 647?648.
- Dennis, George T. (2008).
Three Byzantine Military Treatises
. Washington, DC:
Dumbarton Oaks
.
ISBN
978-0-88402-339-5
.
- Fattori, Niccolo (June 2013).
"The Policies of Nikephoros II Phokas in the context of the Byzantine economic recovery"
(PDF)
. Middle East Technical University.
- Garrood, William (2008). "The Byzantine Conquest of Cilicia and the Hamdanids of Aleppo, 959?965".
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.
58
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(2020).
Introduction to Byzantium, 602?1453
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(2017).
Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade
. Oxford University Press.
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, ed. (1991).
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.
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Φωκ?δε?
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(in Greek). Athens: Foundation of the Hellenic World.
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"De Velitatione Bellica and Byzantine Guerrilla Warfare"
.
Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU
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22
: 22?33.
- McMahon, Lucas (2021). "Logistical modelling of a sea-borne expedition in the Mediterranean: the case of the Byzantine invasion of Crete in AD 960".
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36
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- Ioannes A. Melisseides & Poulcheria Zavolea Melisseidou, "Nikefhoros Phokas (El) Nikfur", ek ton Leontos tou Diakonou, Kedrenou, Aboul Mahasen, Zonara, Ibn El Athir, Glyka, Aboulfeda k.a. Historike Melete, Vol. 1?2, Vergina, Athens 2001,
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(Vol. 1)
ISBN
978-960-7171-89-4
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(in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter.
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(1997).
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.
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(1996).
Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600?1025
. Palgrave Macmillan Limited.
ISBN
978-0-333-49600-8
.
OCLC
1050969602
.
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