Indigenous First Nation of North America
Ethnic group
Mohawk
Kanien?keha?ka
|
|
Canada (
Quebec
,
Ontario
)
| 33,330
[1]
|
---|
United States (
New York
)
| 5,632
|
---|
|
English
,
Mohawk
,
French
,
Formerly:
Dutch
,
Mohawk Dutch
|
|
Karihwiio
,
Kanoh?hon?io
,
Kahni?kwi?io
, Christianity,
Longhouse
,
Handsome Lake
, Other
Indigenous Religion
|
|
Seneca Nation of New York
,
Oneida Nation of Wisconsin
,
Cayuga Nation of New York
,
Onondaga Nation
,
Tuscarora Nation
, other
Iroquoian
peoples
|
The
Kanien'keha:ka
(
transl.
"People of the flint";
[2]
commonly known in
English
as
Mohawk
people) are in the easternmost section of the
Haudenosaunee
, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an
Iroquoian
-speaking
Indigenous people
of
North America
, with communities in southeastern
Canada
and northern
New York State
, primarily around
Lake Ontario
and the
St. Lawrence River
. As one of the five original members of the
Iroquois League
, the Mohawk are known as the
Keepers of the Eastern Door
? the traditional guardians of the Iroquois Confederation against invasions from the east. The Mohawk are federally recognized in the United States as the
Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
.
[3]
At the time of European contact the Mohawk people were based in the valley of the
Mohawk River
in present-day upstate New York, west of the
Hudson River
. Their territory ranged north to the
St. Lawrence River
, southern
Quebec
and eastern
Ontario
; south to greater
New Jersey
and into Pennsylvania; eastward to the
Green Mountains
of
Vermont
; and westward to the border with the Iroquoian
Oneida Nation
's traditional homeland territory.
Kanien?keha:ka communities
[
edit
]
Members of the Kanien?keha:ka people now live in settlements in northern New York State and southeastern Canada.
Contemporary Mohawk communities
Many Kanien?keha:ka communities have two sets of chiefs, who are in some sense competing governmental rivals. One group are the hereditary chiefs (
royaner
), nominated by
Clan Mother
matriarchs
in the traditional Mohawk fashion. Mohawks of most of the reserves have established constitutions with elected chiefs and councilors, with whom the Canadian and U.S. governments usually prefer to deal exclusively. The self-governing communities are listed below, grouped by broad geographical cluster, with notes on the character of
community governance
found in each.
- Northern New York:
- Kanien:ke
(Ganienkeh) "Place of the flint". Traditional governance.
- Kana?tsiohare:ke
"Place of the washed pail". Traditional governance.
- Along the St Lawrence in Quebec:
- Ahkwesahsne
(St. Regis, New York and Quebec/Ontario, Canada) "Where the partridge drums". Traditional governance, band/tribal elections.
- Kahnawa:ke
(south of Montreal) "On the rapids". Canada, traditional governance, band/tribal elections.
- Kanehsata:ke
(
Oka
) "Where the snow crust is". Canada, traditional governance, band/tribal elections.
- Tiowero:ton
(Sainte-Lucie-des-Laurentides, Quebec). Canada, shared governance between Kahnawa?ke and Kanehsata?ke.
- Southern Ontario:
- Kenhte?ke
(Tyendinaga) "On the bay". Traditional governance, band/tribal elections.
- Wahta
(Gibson) "Maple tree". Traditional governance, band/tribal elections.
- Ohswe:ken
"Six Nations of the Grand River". Traditional governance, band/tribal elections. Mohawks form the majority of the population of this Iroquois Six Nations reserve. There are also Mohawk
Orange Lodges
in Canada.
Given increased activism for land claims, a rise in tribal revenues due to establishment of gaming on certain reserves or reservations, competing leadership, traditional government jurisdiction, issues of taxation, and the
Indian Act
, Mohawk communities have been dealing with considerable internal conflict since the late 20th century.
History
[
edit
]
First contact with European settlers
[
edit
]
In the
Mohawk language
, the Mohawk people call themselves the Kanien?keha?ka ("people of the flint"). The Mohawk became wealthy traders as other nations in their confederacy needed their flint for tool making. Their
Algonquian
-speaking neighbors (and competitors), the people of
Muh-heck Haeek Ing
("food area place"), the
Mohicans
, referred to the people of Ka-nee-en Ka as
Maw Unk Lin
, meaning "bear people". The Dutch heard and wrote this term as
Mohawk
, and also referred to the Kanien?keha?ka as
Egil
or
Maqua
.
The
French
colonists adapted these latter terms as
Aignier
and
Maqui
, respectively. They also referred to the people by the generic
Iroquois
, a French derivation of the
Algonquian
term for the Five Nations, meaning "Big Snakes". The Algonquians and Iroquois were traditional competitors and enemies.
In the upper Hudson and Mohawk Valley regions, the Mohawks long had contact with the Algonquian-speaking
Mohican
people who occupied territory along the Hudson, as well as other Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples to the north around the
Great Lakes
. The Mohawks had extended their own influence into the
St. Lawrence River
Valley, which they maintained for hunting grounds. They are believed to have defeated the
St. Lawrence Iroquoians
in the 16th century, and kept control of their territory. In addition to hunting and fishing for centuries the Mohawks cultivated productive maize fields on the fertile floodplains along the Mohawk River, west of the
Pine Bush
.
On June 28, 1609, a band of Hurons led
Samuel De Champlain
and his crew into Mohawk country, the Mohawks being completely unaware of this situation. De Champlain made it clear he wanted to strike the Mohawks down after their raids on the neighboring nations. On July 29, 1609, hundreds of Hurons and many of De Champlain's French crew fell back from the mission, daunted by what lay ahead. Sixty Huron Indians, De Champlain, and two Frenchmen saw some Mohawks in a lake near
Ticonderoga
; the Mohawks spotted them as well. De Champlain and his crew fell back, then advanced to the Mohawk barricade after landing on a beach. They met the Mohawks at the barricade; 200 warriors advanced behind four chiefs. They were equally astonished to see each other -- De Champlain surprised at their stature, confidence, and dress; the Mohawks surprised by De Champlain's steel
cuirass
and helmet. One of the chiefs raised his bow at Champlain and the Indians. Champlain fired three shots that pierced the Mohawk chiefs' wooden armor, killing them instantly. The Mohawks stood in shock until they started flinging arrows at the crowd. A brawl began and the Mohawks fell back seeing the damage this new technology dealt on their chiefs and warriors. This was the first contact the Mohawks had with
Europeans
. This incident also sparked the
Beaver Wars
.
Beaver Wars
[
edit
]
In the seventeenth century, the Mohawk encountered both the
Dutch
, who went up the
Hudson River
and established a trading post in 1614 at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson Rivers, and the French, who came south into their territory from New France (present-day Quebec). The Dutch were primarily merchants and the French also conducted
fur trading
. During this time the Mohawk fought with the Huron in the Beaver Wars for control of the fur trade with the Europeans. Their
Jesuit
missionaries
were active among
First Nations
and Native Americans, seeking converts to
Catholicism
.
In 1614,
the Dutch
opened a
trading post
at
Fort Nassau
,
New Netherland
. The Dutch initially traded for furs with the local Mohican, who occupied the territory along the Hudson River. Following a raid in 1626 when the Mohawks resettled along the south side of the Mohawk River,
[4]
: pp.xix?xx
in 1628, they mounted an attack against the Mohican, pushing them back to the area of present-day
Connecticut
. The Mohawks gained a near-monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch by prohibiting the nearby Algonquian-speaking peoples to the north or east to trade with them but did not entirely control this.
European contact resulted in a devastating
smallpox
epidemic among the Mohawk in 1635; this reduced their population by 63%, from 7,740 to 2,830, as they had no
immunity
to the new disease. By 1642 they had regrouped from four into three villages, recorded by Catholic missionary priest
Isaac Jogues
in 1642 as
Ossernenon
,
Andagaron
, and
Tionontoguen
, all along the south side of the Mohawk River from east to west. These were recorded by speakers of other languages with different spellings, and historians have struggled to reconcile various accounts, as well as to align them with
archeological
studies of the areas. For instance,
Johannes Megapolensis
, a Dutch minister, recorded the spelling of the same three villages as Asserue, Banagiro, and Thenondiogo.
[4]
Late 20th-century archeological studies have determined that Ossernenon was located about 9 miles west of the current city of Auriesville; the two were mistakenly conflated by a tradition that developed in the late 19th century in the Catholic Church.
[5]
[6]
While the Dutch later established settlements in present-day
Schenectady
and
Schoharie
, further west in the Mohawk Valley, merchants in Fort Nassau continued to control the fur trading. Schenectady was established essentially as a farming settlement, where the Dutch took over some of the former Mohawk maize fields in the floodplain along the river. Through trading, the Mohawk and Dutch became allies of a kind.
During their alliance, the Mohawks allowed Dutch Protestant missionary
Johannes Megapolensis
to come into their communities and teach the Christian message. He operated from the Fort Nassau area for about six years, writing a record in 1644 of his observations of the Mohawk, their language (which he learned), and their culture. While he noted their ritual of torture of captives, he recognized that their society had few other killings, especially compared to the Netherlands of that period.
[7]
[8]
The trading relations between the Mohawk and Dutch helped them maintain peace even during the periods of
Kieft's War
and the
Esopus Wars
, when the Dutch fought localized battles with other native peoples. In addition, Dutch trade partners equipped the Mohawk with guns to fight against other First Nations who were allied with the
French
, including the
Ojibwe
,
Huron-Wendat
, and
Algonquin
. In 1645, the Mohawk made peace for a time with the French, who were trying to keep a piece of the fur trade.
[9]
During the
Pequot War
(1634?1638), the
Pequot
and other Algonquian Indians of coastal New England sought an alliance with the Mohawks against English colonists of that region. Disrupted by their losses to smallpox, the Mohawks refused the alliance. They killed the Pequot
sachem
Sassacus
who had come to them for refuge, and returned part of his remains to the English governor of Connecticut,
John Winthrop
, as proof of his death.
[10]
In the winter of 1651, the Mohawk attacked on the southeast and overwhelmed the Algonquian in the coastal areas. They took between 500 and 600 captives. In 1664, the Pequot of New England killed a Mohawk ambassador, starting a war that resulted in the destruction of the Pequot, as the English and their allies in New England entered the
conflict
, trying to suppress the Native Americans in the region. The Mohawk also attacked other members of the Pequot confederacy, in a war that lasted until 1671.
[
citation needed
]
In 1666, the French attacked the Mohawk in the central
New York
area, burning the three Mohawk villages south of the river and their stored food supply. One of the conditions of the peace was that the Mohawk accept
Jesuit
missionaries. Beginning in 1669, missionaries attempted to convert Mohawks to Christianity, operating a mission in Ossernenon 9 miles west
[5]
[6]
of present-day
Auriesville, New York
until 1684, when the Mohawks destroyed it, killing several priests.
Over time, some converted Mohawk relocated to Jesuit mission villages established south of Montreal on the St. Lawrence River in the early 1700s:
Kahnawake
(used to be spelled as
Caughnawaga
, named for the village of that name in the Mohawk Valley) and
Kanesatake
. These Mohawk were joined by members of other Indigenous peoples but dominated the settlements by number. Many converted to Roman Catholicism. In the 1740s, Mohawk and French set up another village upriver, which is known as
Akwesasne
. Today a Mohawk reserve, it spans the St. Lawrence River and present-day international boundaries to New York, United States, where it is known as the
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation
.
Kateri Tekakwitha
, born at Ossernenon in the late 1650s, has become noted as a Mohawk convert to Catholicism. She moved with relatives to Caughnawaga on the north side of the river after her parents' deaths.
[4]
She was known for her faith and a shrine was built to her in New York. In the late 20th century, she was
beatified
and was
canonized
in October 2012 as the first Native American Catholic saint. She is also recognized by the Episcopal and Lutheran churches.
After the fall of New Netherland to England in 1664, the Mohawk in New York traded with the English and sometimes acted as their allies. During
King Philip's War
,
Metacom
,
sachem
of the warring
Wampanoag
Pokanoket
, decided to winter with his warriors near Albany in 1675. Encouraged by the English, the Mohawk attacked and killed all but 40 of the 400 Pokanoket.
[
citation needed
]
From the 1690s, Protestant missionaries sought to convert the Mohawk in the New York colony. Many were
baptized
with English surnames, while others were given both first and surnames in English.
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Mohawk and
Abenaki
First Nations in New England were involved in raids conducted by the French and English against each other's settlements during
Queen Anne's War
and other conflicts. They conducted a growing trade in captives, holding them for ransom. Neither of the colonial governments generally negotiated for common captives, and it was up to local European communities to raise funds to ransom their residents. In some cases, French and Abenaki raiders transported captives from New England to Montreal and the Mohawk mission villages. The Mohawk at
Kahnawake
adopted numerous young women and children to add to their own members, having suffered losses to disease and warfare. For instance, among them were numerous survivors of the more than 100 captives taken in the
Deerfield raid
in western Massachusetts. The minister of Deerfield was ransomed and returned to Massachusetts, but his daughter was adopted by a Mohawk family and ultimately assimilated and married a Mohawk man.
[11]
During the era of the
French and Indian War
(also known as the
Seven Years' War
), Anglo-Mohawk partnership relations were maintained by men such as Sir
William Johnson
in New York (for the British Crown),
Conrad Weiser
(on behalf of the colony of
Pennsylvania
), and
Hendrick Theyanoguin
(for the Mohawk). Johnson called the
Albany Congress
in June 1754, to discuss with the Iroquois chiefs repair of the damaged
diplomatic relationship
between the British and the Mohawk, along with securing their cooperation and support in fighting the French,
[12]
in engagements in North America.
American Revolutionary War
[
edit
]
During the second and third quarters of the 18th century, most of the Mohawks in the
Province of New York
lived along the Mohawk River at
Canajoharie
. A few lived at
Schoharie
, and the rest lived about 30 miles downstream at the Tionondorage Castle, also called
Fort Hunter
. These two major settlements were traditionally called the Upper Castle and the Lower Castle. The Lower Castle was almost contiguous with Sir
Peter Warren
's Warrensbush. Sir
William Johnson
, the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs, built his first house on the north bank of the Mohawk River almost opposite Warrensbush and established the settlement of
Johnstown
.
The Mohawk were among the four Iroquois people that allied with the British during the
American Revolutionary War
. They had a long trading relationship with the British and hoped to gain support to prohibit colonists from encroaching into their territory in the Mohawk Valley.
Joseph Brant
acted as a war chief and successfully led raids against British and ethnic German colonists in the Mohawk Valley, who had been given land by the British administration near the rapids at present-day
Little Falls, New York
.
A few prominent Mohawk, such as the
sachem
Little Abraham
(Tyorhansera) at Fort Hunter, remained neutral throughout the war.
[13]
Joseph Louis Cook
(Akiatonharonkwen), a veteran of the French and Indian War and ally of the rebels, offered his services to the Americans, receiving an officer's commission from the
Continental Congress
. He led
Oneida
warriors against the British. During this war, Johannes Tekarihoga was the civil leader of the Mohawk. He died around 1780.
Catherine Crogan
, a clan mother and wife of Mohawk war chief
Joseph Brant
, named her brother Henry Crogan as the new Tekarihoga.
In retaliation for Brant's raids in the valley, the rebel colonists organized
Sullivan's Expedition
. It conducted extensive raids against other Iroquois settlements in central and western New York, destroying 40 villages, crops, and winter stores. Many Mohawk and other Iroquois migrated to Canada for refuge near
Fort Niagara
, struggling to survive the winter.
After the Revolution
[
edit
]
After the American victory, the British ceded their claim to land in the colonies, and the Americans forced their allies, the Mohawks and others, to give up their territories in New York. Most of the Mohawks migrated to Canada, where the Crown gave them some land in compensation. The Mohawks at the Upper Castle fled to
Fort Niagara
, while most of those at the Lower Castle went to villages near
Montreal
.
Joseph Brant led a large group of Iroquois out of New York to what became the reserve of the
Six Nations of the Grand River
,
Ontario
. Brant continued as a political leader of the Mohawks for the rest of his life. This land extended 100 miles from the head of the
Grand River
to the head of
Lake Erie
where it discharges.
[14]
Another Mohawk war chief,
John Deseronto
, led a group of Mohawk to the
Bay of Quinte
. Other Mohawks settled in the vicinity of Montreal and upriver, joining the established communities (now reserves) at
Kahnawake
,
Kanesatake
, and
Akwesasne
.
On November 11, 1794, representatives of the Mohawk (along with the other Iroquois nations) signed the
Treaty of Canandaigua
with the United States, which allowed them to own land there.
The Mohawks fought as allies of the British against the United States in the
War of 1812
.
20th century to present
[
edit
]
In 1971, the
Mohawk Warrior Society
, also Rotisken’rakehte in the Mohawk language, was founded in
Kahnawake
. The duties of the Warrior Society are to use roadblocks, evictions, and occupations to gain rights for their people, and these tactics are also used among the warriors to protect the environment from pollution. The notable movements started by the Mohawk Warrior Society have been the
Oka Crisis
blockades in 1990 and the Caledonia Ontario, Douglas Creek occupation of a construction site in summer of 2006.
On May 13, 1974, at 4:00 a.m, Mohawks from the
Kahnawake
and
Akwesasne
reservations repossessed traditional Mohawk land near Old Forge, New York, occupying Moss Lake, an abandoned girls camp. The New York state government attempted to shut the operation down, but after negotiation, the state offered the Mohawk some land in Miner Lake, where they have since settled.
The Mohawks have organized for more sovereignty at their reserves in Canada, pressing for authority over their people and lands. Tensions with the
Quebec Provincial
and
national governments
have been strained during certain protests, such as the
Oka Crisis
in 1990.
In 1993, a group of Akwesasne Mohawks purchased 322 acres of land in the Town of
Palatine
in
Montgomery County, New York
which they named
Kanatsiohareke
. It marked a return to their ancestral land.
Mohawk ironworkers in New York
[
edit
]
Mohawks came from Kahnawake and other reserves to work in the construction industry in
New York City
in the early through the mid-20th century. They had also worked in construction in Quebec. The men were
ironworkers
who helped build bridges and skyscrapers, and who were called skywalkers because of their seeming fearlessness.
[15]
They worked from the 1930s to the 1970s on special labor contracts as specialists and participated in building the
Empire State Building
. The construction companies found that the Mohawk ironworkers did not fear heights or dangerous conditions. Their contracts offered lower than average wages to the First Nations people and limited
labor union
membership.
[16]
About 10% of all ironworkers in the New York area are Mohawks, down from about 15% earlier in the 20th century.
[17]
The work and home life of Mohawk ironworkers was documented in
Don Owen
's 1965
National Film Board of Canada
documentary
High Steel
.
[18]
The Mohawk community that formed in a compact area of
Brooklyn
, which they called "Little Caughnawaga", after their homeland, is documented in Reaghan Tarbell's
Little Caughnawaga: To Brooklyn and Back
, shown on PBS in 2008. This community was most active from the 1920s to the 1960s. The families accompanied the men, who were mostly from
Kahnawake
; together they would return to Kahnawake during the summers. Tarbell is from Kahnawake and was working as a film curator at the
George Gustav Heye Center
of the
National Museum of the American Indian
, located in the
former Custom House
in
Lower Manhattan
.
[19]
Since the mid-20th century, Mohawks have also formed their own construction companies. Others returned to New York projects. Mohawk skywalkers had built the
World Trade Center
buildings that were destroyed during the
September 11 attacks
, helped rescue people from the burning towers in 2001, and helped dismantle the remains of the building afterwards.
[20]
Approximately 200 Mohawk ironworkers (out of 2,000 total ironworkers at the site) participated in rebuilding the
One World Trade Center
in Lower Manhattan. They typically drive the 360 miles from the Kahnawake reserve on the St. Lawrence River in Quebec to work the week in lower Manhattan and then return on the weekend to be with their families. A selection of portraits of these Mohawk ironworkers were featured in an online photo essay for
Time
Magazine
in September 2012.
[21]
Contemporary issues
[
edit
]
Casinos
[
edit
]
Both the elected chiefs and the Warrior Society have encouraged gambling as a means of ensuring tribal self-sufficiency on the various reserves or Indian reservations. Traditional chiefs have tended to oppose gaming on moral grounds and out of fear of corruption and organized crime. Such disputes have also been associated with religious divisions: the traditional chiefs are often associated with the Longhouse tradition, practicing consensus-democratic values, while the Warrior Society has attacked that religion and asserted independence. Meanwhile, the elected chiefs have tended to be associated (though in a much looser and general way) with
democratic
, legislative and Canadian governmental values.
On October 15, 1993, Governor
Mario Cuomo
entered into the "Tribal-State Compact Between the St. Regis Mohawk First Nation and the State of New York". The compact allowed the Indigenous people to conduct gambling, including games such as
baccarat
,
blackjack
,
craps
and
roulette
, on the Akwesasne Reservation in
Franklin County
under the
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act
(IGRA).
According to the terms of the 1993 compact, the New York State Racing and Wagering Board, the
New York State Police
and the St. Regis Mohawk Tribal Gaming Commission were vested with gaming oversight. Law enforcement responsibilities fell under the state police, with some law enforcement matters left to the community. As required by IGRA, the compact was approved by the
United States Department of the Interior
before it took effect. There were several extensions and amendments to this compact, but not all of them were approved by the
U.S. Department of the Interior
.
On June 12, 2003, the
New York Court of Appeals
affirmed the lower courts' rulings that Governor Cuomo exceeded his authority by entering into the compact absent legislative authorization and declared the compact void
[22]
On October 19, 2004, Governor
George Pataki
signed a bill passed by the State Legislature that ratified the compact as being
nunc pro tunc
, with some additional minor changes.
[23]
In 2008 the Mohawk Nation was working to obtain approval to own and operate a
casino
in
Sullivan County, New York
, at
Monticello Raceway
. The U.S. Department of the Interior disapproved this action although the Mohawks gained Governor
Eliot Spitzer
's concurrence, subject to the negotiation and approval of either an amendment to the current compact or a new compact. Interior rejected the Mohawks' application to take this land into trust.
[24]
In the early 21st century, two legal cases were pending that related to Native American gambling and land claims in New York. The State of New York has expressed similar objections to the Dept. of Interior taking other land into trust for federally recognized 'tribes', which would establish the land as sovereign Native American territory, on which they might establish new gaming facilities.
[25]
The other suit contends that the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act violates the
Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
as it is applied in the State of New York. In 2010 it was pending in the
United States District Court for the Western District of New York
.
[26]
Culture
[
edit
]
Social organization
[
edit
]
The main structures of social organization are the clans (
ken'tara'okon:'a
). The number of clans vary among the Haudenosaunee; the Mohawk have three: Bear (
Ohkwa:ri
), Turtle (
A'no:wara
), and Wolf (
Okwaho
).
[27]
Clans are nominally the descendants of a single female ancestor, with women possessing the leadership role. Each member of the same clan, across all the Six Nations, is considered a relative. Traditionally, marriages between people of the same clan are forbidden.
[note 1]
Children belong to their mother's clan.
[28]
Religion
[
edit
]
Traditional Mohawk religion is mostly
Animist
. "Much of the religion is based on a primordial conflict between good and evil."
[29]
Many Mohawks continue to follow the
Longhouse Religion
.
In 1632 a band of
Jesuit
missionaries now known as the
Canadian Martyrs
led by
Isaac Jogues
was captured by a party of Mohawks and brought to Ossernenon (now Auriesville, New York). Jogues and company attempted to convert the Mohawks to Catholicism, but the Mohawks took them captive, tortured, abused and killed them.
[30]
Following their martyrdom, new French Jesuit missionaries arrived and many Mohawks were baptized into the Catholic faith. Ten years after Jogues' death
Kateri Tekakwitha
, the daughter of a Mohawk chief and Tagaskouita, a Roman Catholic Algonquin woman, was born in Ossernenon and later was
canonized
as the first Native American
saint
. Religion became a tool of conflict between the French and British in Mohawk country. The
Reformed
clergyman
Godfridius Dellius
also preached among the Mohawks.
[31]
Traditional dress
[
edit
]
Historically, the traditional
hairstyle of Mohawk men
, and many men of the other groups of the Iroquois Confederacy, was to remove most of the hair from the head by plucking (not shaving) tuft by tuft of hair until all that was left was a smaller section, that was worn in a variety of styles, which could vary by community. The women wore their hair long, often dressed with traditional
bear grease
, or tied back into a single braid.
In traditional dress women often went topless in summer and wore a skirt of deerskin. In colder seasons, women wore a deerskin dress. Men wore a
breech cloth
of deerskin in summer. In cooler weather, they added deerskin leggings, a deerskin shirt, arm and knee bands, and carried a quill and flint arrow hunting bag. Women and men wore puckered-seam, ankle-wrap moccasins with earrings and necklaces made of shells. Jewelry was also created using porcupine quills such as
Wampum
belts. For headwear, the men would use a piece of animal fur with attached porcupine quills and features. The women would occasionally wear tiaras of beaded cloth. Later, dress after European contact combined some cloth pieces such as wool trousers and skirts.
[32]
[33]
Marriage
[
edit
]
The Mohawk Nation people have a
matrilineal
kinship system, with descent and inheritance passed through the female line. Today, the marriage ceremony may follow that of the old tradition or incorporate newer elements, but is still used by many Mohawk Nation marrying couples. Some couples choose to marry in the European manner
and
the Longhouse manner, with the Longhouse ceremony usually held first.
[34]
Communities
[
edit
]
Replicas of seventeenth-century longhouses have been built at landmarks and tourist villages, such as
Kanata Village
,
Brantford, Ontario
, and
Akwesasne
's "Tsiionhiakwatha" interpretation village. Other Mohawk Nation Longhouses are found on the Mohawk territory reserves that hold the Mohawk law recitations, ceremonial rites, and
Longhouse Religion
(or "Code of
Handsome Lake
"). These include:
- Ohswe?ken (Six Nations)
[35]
First Nation Territory, Ontario holds six Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouse.
- Wahta
[36]
First Nation Territory, Ontario holds one Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouse.
- Kenhte?ke (Tyendinaga)
[37]
First Nation Territory, Ontario holds one Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouse.
- Ahkwesasne
[38]
First Nation Territory, which straddles the borders of Quebec, Ontario and New York, holds two Mohawk Ceremonial Community Longhouses.
- Ka?nehsata?ke
First Nation Territory, Quebec holds one Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouses.
- Kahnawa?ke
[39]
First Nation Territory, Quebec holds three Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouse.
- Kanien?ke
[40]
First Nation Territory, New York State holds one Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouse.
- Kana?tsiohara?ke
[41]
First Nation Territory, New York State holds one Ceremonial Mohawk Community Longhouse.
Notable Mohawk
[
edit
]
- Tammy Beauvais
, Mohawk fashion designer
- Beth Brant
, Mohawk writer and poet
- Joseph Brant
, Mohawk leader, British officer
- Molly Brant
, Mohawk leader, sister of Joseph Brant
- Joseph Tehawehron David
, Mohawk artist
- Esther Louise Georgette Deer
, Mohawk dancer and singer
- Tracey Deer
, Mohawk filmmaker
- John Deseronto
, Mohawk chief
- Canaqueese
, called Flemish Bastard, Mohawk chief
- Carla Hemlock
, quilter, beadwork artist
- Donald "Babe" Hemlock
, woodcarver, sculptor
- Hiawatha
, Mohawk chief
- Karonghyontye
or Captain David Hill, Mohawk leader
- Kahn-Tineta Horn
, activist
- Kaniehtiio Horn
, film and television actress
- Waneek Horn-Miller
, Olympic water polo player
- Kawennahere Devery Jacobs
, actress
- Sid Jamieson
, lacrosse player, coach
- George Henry Martin Johnson
, Mohawk chief and interpreter
- Pauline Johnson
, writer
- Stan Jonathan
, former NHL hockey player
- Dawn Martin-Hill
, professor
- Derek Miller
, singer-songwriter
- Patricia Monture-Angus
, lawyer, activist, educator, and author.
- Alwyn Morris
, Olympic K?2 1000m.
- Shelley Niro
(b. 1954), filmmaker, photographer, and installation artist
- John Norton
, Scottish born, adopted into the Mohawk First Nation and made an honorary "Pine Tree Chief"
- Richard Oakes
, Mohawk activist
- Ots-Toch
, wife of Dutch colonist Cornelius A. Van Slyck
- Alex Rice
, actress
- Robbie Robertson
, singer-songwriter,
The Band
- August Schellenberg
, actor
- Jay Silverheels
, actor
- Skawennati
, multimedia artist and curator
- Barbara Stanley
, professor, writer/author, activist, and GSNEO Woman of Distinction 2012
- Taiaiake Alfred
, professor and activist
- Kiawentiio Tarbell
, actress, singer-songwriter, and visual artist
- Julian Taylor
, rock singer (
Staggered Crossing
, Julian Taylor Band)
[42]
- Hendrick Tejonihokarawa
Mohawk chief of the Wolf Clan; one of the four kings to visit England to see
Queen Anne
to ask for help fighting the French
- Devery Jacobs
, actress, writer, and director
- Saint Kateri Tekakwitha
, "Lily of the Mohawks", a Catholic saint
- Mary Two-Axe Earley
, women's rights activist
- Billy Two Rivers
, professional wrestler
- Oronhyatekha
, physician, Scholar
- Tom Wilson
, rock singer (
Junkhouse
,
Blackie and the Rodeo Kings
,
Lee Harvey Osmond
)
- Herbert York
, nuclear physicist; administrator
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
"Within certain clans there may also be different types of one animal or bird. For example, the turtle clan has three different types of turtles, the wolf clan has three different types of wolves and the bear clan includes three different types of bears allowing for marriage within the clan as long as each belongs to a different species of the clan."
[28]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Canada Census Profile 2021"
.
Census Profile, 2021 Census
. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. 7 May 2021
. Retrieved
3 January
2023
.
- ^
"HAUDENOSAUNEE GUIDE FOR EDUCATORS"
(PDF)
.
National Museum of the American Indian
. 2009
. Retrieved
6 May
2024
.
- ^
"Meet the People"
.
National Museum of the American Indian
. Retrieved
2024-05-16
.
- ^
a
b
c
Snow, Dean R.; Gehring, Charles T.; Starna, William A. (1996).
In Mohawk Country
. Syracuse University Press.
ISBN
0-8156-2723-8
.
Archived
from the original on 2016-12-31
. Retrieved
2016-10-11
.
- ^
a
b
Donald A. Rumrill, "An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation: Its Chronology and Movements",
The Bulletin and Journal of Archaeology for New York State
, 1985, vol. 90, pp. 1?39
- ^
a
b
Dean R. Snow, (1995)
Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites
, University at Albany Institute for Archaeological Studies (First Edition);
Occasional Papers Number 23
, Matson Museum of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University (Second Edition).
- ^
"Dutch missionary John Megapolensis on the Mohawks (Iroquois), 1644"
.
Smithsonian Source
. Archived from
the original
on June 11, 2016
. Retrieved
May 27,
2016
.
- ^
"A Short History of the Mohawk"
Archived
2016-06-24 at the
Wayback Machine
, in
In Mohawk Country: Early Narratives about a Native People
, ed. Dean R. Snow, Charles T. Gehring, William A. Starna; Syracuse University Press, 1996, pp. 38?46
- ^
William N. Fenton, Francis Jennings, Mary A. Druke:
The Earliest Recorded Description. The Mohawk Treaty with
New France
at
Three Rivers
1645
, in Jennings ed.,
The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy
.
Syracuse University Press
, 1985, pp. 127?153
- ^
"General History of Duchess County, From 1609 to 1876, Inclusive", Philip H. Smith, Pawling, New York, 1877, p. 154
- ^
John Demos
,
The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America
, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994
- ^
"The Albany Congress"
.
Archived
from the original on 7 April 2014
. Retrieved
2 April
2014
.
- ^
"Little Abraham Tyorhansera, Mohawk Indian, Wolf Clan Chief"
.
Native Heritage Project
. 16 August 2012.
Archived
from the original on July 1, 2016
. Retrieved
May 26,
2016
.
- ^
Stone, William (September 1838). "Life of Joseph Brant--Thayendanegea; including the Border Wars of the American Revolution".
American Monthly Magazine
.
12
: 12, 273?284.
- ^
Sky Walking: Raising Steel, A Mohawk Ironworker Keeps Tradition Alive
,
archived
from the original on 2016-11-01
, retrieved
2016-10-29
- ^
Joseph Mitchell, "The Mohawks in High Steel", in Edmund Wilson,
Apologies to the Iroquois
(New York: Vintage, 1960), pp. 3?36.
- ^
Nessen, Stephen (19 March 2012),
Sky Walking: Raising Steel, A Mohawk Ironworker Keeps Tradition Alive
,
archived
from the original on 1 November 2016
, retrieved
2016-10-29
- ^
Owen, Don.
"High Steel"
(Requires
Adobe Flash
)
.
Online documentary
.
National Film Board of Canada
.
Archived
from the original on 28 December 2010
. Retrieved
14 March
2011
.
- ^
Tarbell, Reaghan (2008).
"Little Caughnawaga: To Brooklyn and Back"
. National Film Board of Canada
. Retrieved
August 31,
2009
.
- ^
Wolf, White.
"The Mohawks Who Built Manhattan (Photos)"
.
White Wolf
. Archived from
the original
on 2017-10-22
. Retrieved
2016-10-29
.
- ^
Wallace, Vaughn (2012-09-11).
"The Mohawk Ironworkers: Rebuilding the Iconic Skyline of New York"
.
Time
. Archived from
the original
on 2012-09-15
. Retrieved
2012-09-16
.
- ^
ROSENBLATT (12 June 2003).
"3 No. 42: Saratoga County Chamber of Commerce Inc., et al. v. George Pataki, as Governor of the State of New York, et al"
.
www.law.cornell.edu
.
Archived
from the original on 24 October 2017
. Retrieved
27 June
2017
.
- ^
see C. 590 of the Laws of 2004
- ^
"The Associate Deputy Secretary of the Interior"
(PDF)
. Washington. 4 January 2008.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 27 March 2009
. Retrieved
29 October
2010
.
- ^
"Former Website of the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation"
(PDF)
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 February 2007
. Retrieved
29 October
2010
.
- ^
"Warren v. United States of America, et al"
. Archived from
the original
on 1 August 2012
. Retrieved
29 October
2010
.
- ^
"Mohawk Language Lessons 2017 Lesson 5 Clans"
.
Kenhte:ke nene kanyen’keha:ka
. Retrieved
May 10,
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"Clan System"
.
Haudenosaunee Confederacy
. Retrieved
May 10,
2023
.
- ^
"mohawk"
.
Cultural Survival
.
Archived
from the original on May 28, 2015
. Retrieved
May 26,
2015
.
- ^
Anderson, Emma (2013).
The Death and Afterlife of the North American Martyrs
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 25.
- ^
Corwin, Edward Tanjore (1902).
A Manual of the Reformed Church in America (formerly Reformed Protestant Dutch Church). 1628-1902
. Board of publication of the Reformed church in America. pp. 408?410.
ISBN
9780524060162
.
- ^
Inglish, Patty (February 27, 2020).
"Traditional Mohawk Nation Daily and Ceremonial Clothing"
.
Owlcation
. Retrieved
2020-08-10
.
- ^
Megapolensis, Jr., Johannes. "A Short Account of the Mohawk Indians."
Short Account of the Mohawk Indians
, August 2017, 168
- ^
Anne Marie Shimony, "Conservatism among the Iroquois at Six Nations Reserve", 1961
- ^
"Six Nations Of The Grand River"
. Archived from
the original
on 2016-01-28
. Retrieved
2007-12-16
.
- ^
"Home Page"
.
www.wahta.ca
.
Archived
from the original on 2019-03-27
. Retrieved
2019-03-27
.
- ^
"Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte ? Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory ≫ Home"
. Archived from
the original
on 2007-09-28
. Retrieved
2007-12-16
.
- ^
"She?kon/Greetings ? Mohawk Council of Akwesasne"
. Archived from
the original
on 2007-12-26
. Retrieved
2007-12-16
.
- ^
Kahnawa:ke, Mohawk Council of.
"Mohawk Council of Kahnawa:ke"
.
www.kahnawake.com
. Archived from
the original
on 2013-09-06.
- ^
"? ganienkeh.net-- Information from the People of Ganienkeh"
.
Archived
from the original on 2013-06-03
. Retrieved
2012-12-02
.
- ^
"Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Community"
.
Archived
from the original on 2007-10-18
. Retrieved
2007-12-16
.
- ^
Madeline Crone,
"Julian Taylor Premieres Title Track, 'The Ridge'"
.
American Songwriter
, April 8, 2020.
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
Central communities
| | |
---|
Largest communities
(over 20,000 in
2010
)
| |
---|
Medium-sized communities
(10,000 to 20,000 in
2000
)
| |
---|
Small communities
(5,000 to 10,000 in
2000
)
| |
---|
|
Counties
| |
---|
History
| |
---|
Geography
| |
---|
Religion
and
culture
| |
---|
Education
| |
---|
Newspapers
| |
---|
Television
| |
---|
| Full-power stations
|
- WRGB
(6.1
CBS
, 6.2
TBD
, 6.3
Comet
)
- WTEN
(10.1
ABC
, 10.2
Cozi
, 10.3
ANT
, 10.4
Mystery
)
- WNYT
(13.1
NBC
, 13.2
MeTV
, 13.3
Start
, 13.4
Get
)
- WMHT
(17.1
PBS
, 17.2
Create
, 17.3
World
, 17.4
PBS Kids
)
- WXXA-TV
(23.1
Fox
, 23.2 Capital
OTB
TV, 23.3
Grit
, 23.4
REW
)
- WCWN
(45.1
The CW
, 45.2
Charge!
, 45.4
Nest
)
- WNYA
(51.1
MNT
, 51.2
Grio
, 51.3
Catchy
, 51.4
H&I
)
- WYPX-TV
(55.1
Ion
, 55.2
Bounce
, 55.3
Court
, 55.4
Laff
, 55.5
Defy
, 55.6
Scripps News
, 55.7
JTV
, 55.8
HSN
, 55.9
QVC
)
|
---|
Low-power stations
|
- WNCE-CD
(8.1
YTA
;
Glens Falls
)
- WYBN-LD
(14.1
Buzzr
, 14.2 Fun Roads, 14.3
This
, 14.4
Retro
, 14.5
Rev'n
, 14.6
NOST
, 14.7
Action
, 14.8
NewsNet
;
Cobleskill
)
- WNYT (DRT) 21
(
NBC
,
Troy
)
- W21CP-D 21
(
NBC
,
Gloversville
, via
WNYT
)
- WVBG-LD
(25.1
Buzzr
, 25.2 Fun Roads, 25.3
This
, 25.4
Retro
, 25.5
Rev'n
, 25.6
CRTV
, 25.7
Action
, 25.8
NewsNet
;
Greenwich
)
- WNYT (DRT) 28
(
NBC
,
Glens Falls
)
- W28DA-D 28
(
NBC
,
Pittsfield, MA
, via
WNYT
)
- W35DU-D 35
(
NBC
,
Adams, MA
, via
WNYT
)
- WNGN-LD 38 / WNGX-LD 42
(
Heartland
;
Troy
/
Schenectady
)
|
---|
ATSC 3.0 digital
| |
---|
Cable-only stations
| |
---|
Defunct stations
| |
---|
|
---|
Radio
| |
---|
|