16th-century ruler of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania
Michael the Brave
(
Romanian
:
Mihai Viteazul
[mi?haj
vi?te?azul]
or
Mihai Bravu
[?bravu]
; 1558 ? 9 August 1601), born as
Mihai P?tra?cu
, was the Prince of
Wallachia
(as
Michael II
, 1593?1601), Prince of
Moldavia
(1600) and
de facto
ruler of
Transylvania
(1599?1600). He is considered one of Romania's greatest national heroes.
[2]
Since the 19th century, Michael the Brave has been regarded by
Romanian nationalists
as a symbol of Romanian unity,
[3]
as his reign marked the first time all principalities inhabited by Romanians were under the same ruler.
His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593. Two years later, war with the
Ottomans
began, a conflict in which the Prince fought the
Battle of C?lug?reni
, resulting in a victory against an army nearly three times the size of the army of Michael the Brave, considered one of the most important battles of his reign. Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle, Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies, Prince
Sigismund Bathory
of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor
Rudolf II
. The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597, but this lasted for only a year and a half. Peace was again reached in late 1599, when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies. In 1599, Michael won the
Battle of ?elimb?r
against
Andrew Bathory
and soon entered
Gyulafehervar
(today Alba Iulia, Romania), becoming the imperial governor (i.e.
de facto
ruler) of Transylvania, under
Habsburg
suzerainty. A few months later, Michael's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital,
Ia?i
. The Moldavian leader
Ieremia Movil?
fled to Poland and Michael was declared
Prince of Moldavia
. During this period, Michael the Brave changed his seal to represent his personal union of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania.
The interests of the three neighbouring great powers ? the
Habsburg monarchy
, the
Ottoman Empire
, and the
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
? were damaged by Michael the Brave's achievements. Although he acknowledged the suzerainty of Rudolf II, Michael the Brave continued to negotiate his official position in Transylvania, pleading for direct rule instead of being imperial governor. Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the Hungarian nobility of Transylvania rose against him in a series of revolts with the support of the Austrian army commanded by the Italian General
Giorgio Basta
, defeating Michael the Brave at the
Battle of Mir?sl?u
, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania and retreat to
Wallachia
with his remaining troops, while the forces of the Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth entered
Moldavia
and defeated the forces loyal to Michael the Brave, restoring
Ieremia Movil?
on the throne. The Polish army led by
Jan Zamoyski
also advanced in eastern Wallachia and established
Simion Movil?
as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in
Oltenia
.
Michael the Brave then left for
Prague
, seeking audience with Emperor Rudolf II; however, the emperor refused to allow him audience. But General
Giorgio Basta
's governance of
Transylvania
faced significant opposition from the Hungarian nobility, leading to the reinstallation of
Sigismund Bathory
, who turned his back on Emperor Rudolf II and declared submission to the
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
after receiving substantial military support. This led to Emperor Rudolf II accepting Michael the Brave's audience and providing him with 100,000 florins to rebuild his army. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in
Wallachia
led by his son, Nicolae P?tra?cu, drove
Simion Movil?
out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael the Brave, allied with Giorgio Basta, defeated the Hungarian army at the
Battle of Gurusl?u
. A few days later Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself,
assassinated
Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor Rudolf II.
Early life
[
edit
]
Michael was born in 1558.
[5]
[6]
He claimed to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian
Prince
P?tra?cu cel Bun
(P?tra?cu the Good),
[7]
of the
Dr?cule?ti branch
of the
House of Basarab
; some historians believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule.
[9]
[10]
His real father was most likely a
Greek
merchant.
[11]
His mother was
Theodora Kantakouzene
[
ro
]
, a member of the Greek noble family
Kantakouzenoi
, present in Wallachia and Moldavia, and allegedly descended from the
Byzantine Emperor
John VI Kantakouzenos
.
[12]
[13]
[14]
She was born in the
Greek region of Epirus
and she may have been the sister of the famous Greek magnate
Michael Kantakouzenos ?eytano?lu
, as well as the cousin of
Iane Cantacuzino
[
ro
]
.
[14]
Michael could probably speak
Greek
too, besides Romanian.
[15]
Michael's political rise was quite spectacular, as he became the
Ban
of
Mehedin?i
in 1588,
stolnic
at the court of
Mihnea Turcitul
by the end of 1588, and
Ban of Craiova
in 1593 ? during the rule of
Alexandru cel R?u
. The latter had him swear before 12
boyars
that he was not of princely descent.
[16]
Still, in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael, who was forced to flee to Transylvania. He was accompanied by his half-brother Radu Florescu,
Radu Buzescu
and several other supporters.
[17]
After spending two weeks at the court of
Sigismund Bathory
, he left for
Constantinople
, where with help from his cousin
Andronikos Kantakouzenos
(the eldest son of
Michael "?eytano?lu" Kantakouzenos
) and
Patriarch Jeremiah II
he negotiated
Ottoman
support for his accession to the Wallachian throne. He was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital,
Edward Barton
, and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins.
[17]
Michael was invested Prince by Sultan
Murad III
in September 1593 and started his effective rule on 11 October.
[18]
Wallachia
[
edit
]
Not long after Michael became Prince of Wallachia, he turned against the Ottoman Empire. The next year he joined the
Christian
alliance of
European
powers formed by
Pope Clement VIII
against the Turks, and signed treaties with his neighbours:
Sigismund Bathory
of Transylvania,
Aaron the Tyrant
of
Moldavia
and the Holy Roman Emperor,
Rudolf II
(see
Holy League of Pope Clement VIII
). He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594, conquering several citadels near the
Danube
, including
Giurgiu
,
Br?ila
,
Har?ova
, and
Silistra
, while his Moldavian allies defeated the
Turks
in
Ia?i
and other parts of Moldavia.
[19]
Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire, taking the forts of
Nicopolis
, Ribnic, and
Chilia
[20]
and even reaching as far as
Adrianople
.
[21]
In 1595,
Sigismund Bathory
staged an elaborate plot and had Aaron the Tyrant, voivode of Moldavia, removed from power.
[22]
Istvan Josika
(Bathory's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian)
[23]
masterminded the operation.
?tefan R?zvan
arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of 24 April (5 May) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at (Gyulafehervar with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle of
Vinc
. Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had played an active role in the anti-Ottoman coalition. Later on, in the same city of Gyulafehervar, Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael's behalf. From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics, the
Treaty of Gyulafehervar
officialized what could be called a
boyar regime
, reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite. According to the treaty, a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the
voivode
in the executive rule of the country.
[
citation needed
]
Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and, if convicted for treason, their fortunes could no longer be confiscated. Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys, but was forced to comply. Prince Michael said in a conversation with the
Polish
envoy Lubieniecki:
... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves.
He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign.
[24]
During his reign, Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords, the most important of whom were Buzescu Brothers (Romanian:
Fra?ii Buze?ti
) and his own relatives on his mother's side, the Cantacuzinos.
[25]
He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign; for example, he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats.
[26]
From the standpoint of religious jurisdiction, the Treaty of Gyulafehervar had another important consequence: it placed all the
Eastern Orthodox
bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat of
Targovi?te
.
[24]
During this period, the Ottoman army, based in
Ruse
, was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack. Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross the Danube on 4 August 1595. As his army was outnumbered, Michael avoided carrying the battle in open field, and decided to give battle on a marshy field located near the village of C?lug?reni on the
Neajlov
river. The
Battle of C?lug?reni
started on 13 August and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led by
Sinan Pasha
.
[24]
Despite the victory, he retreated to his winter camp in
Stoiene?ti
because he had too few troops to mount a full-scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces. He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Bathory's 40,000-man army (led by
Stephen Bocskai
) and counterattacked the Ottomans, freeing the towns of
Targovi?te
(8 October),
Bucharest
(12 October) and
Br?ila
, temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty.
The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596 when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube at
Vidin
,
Pleven
,
Nicopolis
, and
Babadag
, where he was assisted by the local
Bulgarians
during the
First Tarnovo Uprising
.
[27]
During late 1596, Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from the
Tatars
, who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest and
Buz?u
. By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack, the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought. Michael was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans, but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Bathory and Rudolf II. On 7 January 1597
Hasan Pasha
declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael's rule,
[28]
but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack. Michael again requested Rudolf II's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to the Wallachian ruler. On 9 June 1598 a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II. According to the treaty, the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5,000-man army, as well as armaments and supplies.
[29]
Shortly after the treaty was signed, the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besieged
Nicopolis
on 10 September 1598 and took control of
Vidin
. The war with the Ottomans continued until 26 June 1599, when Michael, lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war, signed a peace treaty.
[30]
Transylvania
[
edit
]
In April 1598, Sigismund resigned as
Prince of Transylvania
in favor of the
Holy Roman Emperor
,
Rudolf II
(who was also the
King of Hungary
); reversed his decision in October 1598; and then resigned again in favor of
Cardinal
Andrew Bathory
, his cousin.
[31]
Bathory had strong ties to the
Polish
chancellor and
hetman
Jan Zamoyski
and placed Transylvania under the influence of the
King
of
Poland
,
Sigismund III Vasa
. He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince
Ieremia Movil?
, one of Michael's greatest enemies.
[30]
Movil? had deposed ?tefan R?zvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595.
[30]
Having to face this new threat, Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia. On 25 September (5 October) Bathory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne.
[32]
Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Bathory immediately to prevent invasion. He would later describe the events:
I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army
[marched into Transylvania]
so that the foe should not crush me here.
He left Targovi?te on 2 October, and 9 by October he had reached
Prejmer
in southern Transylvania, where he met envoys from the city of
Brasso
(today Bra?ov, Romania). Sparing the city, he moved on to
Kerc
(today Car?a, Romania), where he joined forces with the
Szekelys
.
[32]
On 18 October Michael won a decisive victory
[33]
against the army of prince-cardinal Andrew Bathory at the
Battle of ?elimb?r
, giving him control of Transylvania. As he retreated from the battle, Andrew Bathory was killed by anti-Bathory
Szekely
on 3 November near
Csikszentdomokos
(today Sandominic, Romania) and Michael gave him a princely burial in the
Roman Catholic Cathedral of Gyulafehervar
.
[34]
With his enemy dead, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Gyulafehervar and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop
Demeter Napragyi
, later depicted as a seminal event in Romanian
historiography
. Historian
Istvan Szamoskozy
, keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on 10 October, Transylvanian nobles
elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania
. As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf, then to himself and thirdly to his son.
[35]
Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian diet as only imperial governor
[36]
subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, he was nonetheless ruler of Transylvania.
In Transylvania Michael used the following signature on official documents:
Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda, Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens, cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus".
("Michael, voivode of Wallachia, the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King, his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania.")
When Michael entered Transylvania, he did not immediately free or grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants, who were primarily peasants but, nevertheless, constituted a significant proportion
[notes 1]
of the population. Michael demonstrated his support by upholding the
Union of the Three Nations
, which recognized only the traditional rights and privileges of the Hungarians, Szekelys and
Saxons
, but he did not recognize the rights of the Romanians.
[37]
[38]
Indeed, while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania, he also invited some Szekelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia, where he wished to transplant Transylvania's far more advanced feudal system.
Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachian
voivode
, on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the
Partium
region. Michael was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledge
Habsburg
overlordship.
[39]
[40]
[41]
Moldavia
[
edit
]
The Moldavian Prince
Ieremia Movil?
had been an old enemy of Michael, having incited Andrew Bathory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication.
[42]
His brother,
Simion Movil?
, claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595. Aware of the threat the Movil?s represented, Michael had created the
Banate
of
Buz?u
and
Br?ila
in July 1598 and the new
ban
was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian,
Tatar
, and
Cossack
moves, although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years.
[42]
On 28 February 1600 Michael met with Polish envoys in Brasso. He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over the three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. This did not significantly delay his attack, however; on 14 April 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main thrust to
Trotu?
and
Roman
.
[43]
He reached the capital of
Ia?i
on 6 May. The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movil?, who was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear-guard. Movil? took refuge in the castle of
Hotin
together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Bathory.
[42]
The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before 11 June, Movil? managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to
hetman
Stanisław ?ołkiewski
's camp.
[43]
Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially the
Hungarian nobility
in Transylvania, who rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at the
Battle of Mir?sl?u
, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops.
[44]
A Polish army led by
Jan Zamoyski
drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at
N?ieni
,
Ceptura
, and
Bucov
(
Battle of the Teleaj?n River
). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movil? as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in
Oltenia
.
[45]
Last victory and assassination
[
edit
]
Michael asked again for assistance from
Emperor
Rudolf II
during a visit in
Prague
between 23 February and 5 March 1601, which was granted when the emperor heard that General
Giorgio Basta
had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by
Sigismund Bathory
, who accepted Ottoman protection. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son,
Nicolae P?tra?cu
, drove
Simion Movil?
out of
Wallachia
and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian army in
Battle of Gurusl?u
. A few days later, Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself,
assassinated
Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor; the killing took place near
Campia Turzii
on 9 August 1601.
[46]
According to Romanian historian
Constantin C. Giurescu
:
[45]
Never in Romanian history was a moment of such highness and glory so closely followed by bitter failure.
Legacy
[
edit
]
The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern
Romania
, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by
Nicolae B?lcescu
. This theory became a point of reference for
nationalists
, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state.
[47]
To Romanian Romantic nationalists,
[48]
he was regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes. He is known in Romanian historiography as
Mihai Viteazul
or, less commonly,
Mihai Bravu
.
The prince began to be perceived as a
unifier
towards the middle of the 19th century.
[3]
Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th-century chroniclers, and even in that of the
Transylvanian School
around 1800. What they emphasized, apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself, were the idea of
Christendom
and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf. The conqueror's ambition is likewise frequently cited as a motivation for his action, occupying in the interpretative schema the place that was later to be occupied by the
Romanian idea
.
[
citation needed
]
In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler
Miron Costin
, Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia, "the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians", and not even highly appreciated by his own
Wallachians
: "The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai".
[49]
The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in
The History of the Princes of Wallachia
, attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu (1655?1729), which bundles together all Michael's adversaries without distinction. Romanians and foreigners alike: "He subjected the Turks, the Moldavians, and the Hungarians to his rule, as if they were his asses." The picturesque flavor of the expression serves only to confirm the absence of any
Romanian idea
.
[
citation needed
]
Samuil Micu
, a member of the
Transylvanian School
wrote in his work
Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians
(written in the 1790s): "In the year 1593, Michael, who is called the Brave, succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia. He was a great warrior, who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians. And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf".
[50]
Petre P. Panaitescu
states that in Mihai's time, the concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist.
[51]
[
verification needed
]
A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael's politics, holding that Michael's lack of desire to join the principalities' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept.
[52]
Several Romanian settlements named after him, such as:
- Mihai Viteazu
, a commune in
Cluj County
- Mihai Bravu, Giurgiu
, a commune in
Giurgiu County
- Mihai Bravu, Tulcea
, a commune in
Tulcea County
- Mihai Viteazu
, a village in the commune
Vlad ?epe?, C?l?ra?i
- Mihai Bravu
, a village in the commune
Victoria, Br?ila
- Mihai Bravu
, a village in the commune
Ro?iori, Bihor
Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the
Athonite
Simonopetra Monastery
for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery that had been destroyed by a fire.
Mihai Viteazul
, a film by
Sergiu Nicolaescu
, a well-known Romanian film director, is a representation of the life of the
Wallachian
ruler and his will to unite the three Romanian
principalities
(
Wallachia
,
Moldavia
, and
Transylvania
) as one domain.
[
citation needed
]
The
Order of Michael the Brave
, Romania's highest
military decoration
, was named after Michael.
[53]
Mihai Viteazul's name and portrait appear on at least two Romanian coins: 5
Lei
1991 (only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation), and on 100 Lei, which circulated through the 1990s.
[54]
At least four major high schools in Romania bear his name: the
Mihai Viteazul National College (Bucharest)
the
Mihai Viteazul National College (Ploie?ti)
[
ro
]
, the
Mihai Viteazul National College (Slobozia)
and Mihai Viteazul National College (Gala?i)
Seal
[
edit
]
The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavian
urus
, above Wallachian
eagle
between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Byzantine coat of arms, belonging to the
Kantakouzenos
- Asen branch of
Asen dinasty
: two meeting, standing
lions
supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures.
There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Slavonic using
Romanian Cyrillic alphabet
"
IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI
", meaning "
Io
Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands
". Second, placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition, "
I ML BJE MLRDIE
", could be translated "
Through The Very Grace of God
".
[55]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
~60% in 1600 according to George W. White and ~28.4% in 1595 according to Karoly Kocsis & Eszter Kocsisne Hodosi
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Targul de Floci, locul unde s-a n?scut Mihai Viteazul"
.
Adev?rul
(in Romanian). 22 July 2011.
- ^
Kemp, Arthur (2008).
Jihad: Islam's 1,300 Year War Against Western Civilisation
. Ostara.
ISBN
978-1-4092-0502-9
.
- ^
a
b
"Michael Prince of Walachia"
.
www.britannica.com
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Retrieved
25 March
2019
.
- ^
"Michael | Ruler, Conqueror, Reformer"
.
Encyclopedia Britannica
. Retrieved
4 November
2023
.
- ^
Sainty, Guy Stair (1 December 2018).
The Constantinian Order of Saint George: and the Angeli, Farnese and Bourbon families which governed it
. Boletin Oficial del Estado. p. 564.
ISBN
978-84-340-2506-6
.
Michael (P?tra?cu) the Brave
- ^
Giurescu, p. 180.; Iorga.
- ^
Maxim, Mihai (2011),
"New Turkish Documents Concerning Michael the Brave and His Time"
,
L'empire ottoman au nord du Danube et l'autonomie des principautes roumaines au XVIe siecle. etudes et document.
(in French and English), Gorgias Press, pp. 129?156,
doi
:
10.31826/9781463233365-005
,
ISBN
978-1-4632-3336-5
, retrieved
12 January
2024
- ^
Dinu, Tudor (2011).
"Ο Ρουμ?νο? ηγεμ?να? Μιχα?λ ο Γεννα?ο? (1593-1601) και οι ?λληνε?"
[
The Romanian noble Michael the Brave (1593-1601) and the Greeks
].
Μν?μων
.
29
: 9.
doi
:
10.12681/mnimon.4
.
ISSN
2241-7524
.
- ^
Cr?ciun, Ioachim (1928).
Cronicarul Szamoskozy ?i insemn?rile lui privitoare la romani : 1566-1608
(in Romanian). Cluj: Universitatea Regele Ferdinand I. pp. 20?36.
- ^
Brown, Amelia Robertson; Neil, Bronwen (20 July 2017).
Byzantine Culture in Translation
. BRILL. p. 231.
ISBN
978-90-04-34907-0
.
Michael was the son of P?tra?cu cel Bun ('the Good'), voivode from 1553 to 1557, and that Michael's mother, Tudora, was a member of the powerful Kantakouzinos family. This would neatly explain the Kantakouzini's support for Michael.
- ^
Iorga, Nicolae (1988).
Istoria romanilor: Vitejii
(in Romanian). Editura ?tiin?ific? ?i Enciclopedic?. p. 239.
ISBN
978-973-45-0029-1
.
- ^
a
b
Sofronie, M?d?lin (30 June 2015).
"Mama lui Mihai Viteazul, unul dintre cele mai controversate personaje din istorie. Povestea de via?? nespus? a doamnei Tudora"
.
Adev?rul
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
4 November
2023
.
- ^
Iorga, p. 32
- ^
According to the 18th-century chronicle of Radu Popescu.
- ^
a
b
"Rumania"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 832.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 182.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 183.
- ^
Martin Fumee, Historia von den Emporungen, so sich im Konigreich Vngarn, auch in Siebenburgen, Moldaw, in der Bergische Walachey vnd andern orthern zugetragen haben, 1596.
- ^
Marco Venier, correspondence with the Doge of Venice, 16 July 1595
- ^
C. Rezachevici ? "Legenda ?i substratul ei istoric"
- ^
Diaconescu, Marius (2004) "Gandirea politic? a lui ?tefan Josika, cancelarul principelui Sigismund Bathory"
https://www.semperfidelis.ro/e107_files/public/1263591828_2323_FT38854_stefan_josica.doc
- ^
a
b
c
Giurescu, p. 186.
- ^
Manea.
- ^
Panaitescu; Bolovan.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 189.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 190.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 191.
- ^
a
b
c
Giurescu, p. 193.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 192.
- ^
a
b
Giurescu, p. 194.
- ^
Helen Matau Powell.
Matau Family History & Related Lineages: With a Brief History of Romania
. University of Wisconsin ? Madison, Gateway Press, 2002.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 195.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 196.
- ^
"History of Transylvania by Akademiai Kiado"
. Mek.oszk.hu
. Retrieved
18 September
2013
.
- ^
White, George W. (2000).
Nationalism and Territory: Constructing Group Identity in Southeastern Europe
. Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
978-0847698097
.
- ^
Karoly Kocsis, Eszter Kocsisne Hodosi,
Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin
, Simon Publications LLC, 1998, p. 102 (Table 19)
- ^
Giurescu, pp. 196?197.
- ^
An example in this sense is Michael's demands addressed to Emperor Rudolf II, in July 1600. The document is very suggestively titled: "Demands of Michael Voivode, Prince of Transylvania, Moldova and Wallachia, to His Highness the Emperor of Rome. These are His Majesty's wishes". This Document entered Romanian historiography and under title: "?i hotarul Ardealului(...)pohta ce-am pohtit(...)Moldova, ?ara Rumaneasc?" [And the border of Transylvania... my requests...Moldova, the Romanian Country]
"Testamentul politic al lui Mihai Viteazul"
.
Dacoromania
. nstitutul de Lingvistic? ?i Istorie Literar? ?Sextil Pu?cariu" din Cluj-Napoca.
- ^
Szadeczki, Lajos (1893).
Erdely es Mihaly Vaida
(PDF)
. pp. 347?352.
- ^
a
b
c
Giurescu, p. 198.
- ^
a
b
Giurescu, p. 199.
- ^
Giurescu, p. 201.
- ^
a
b
Giurescu, p. 200.
- ^
Giurescu, pp. 201?205.
- ^
Giurescu, pp. 211?213.
- ^
White, George W. (2000).
Nationalism and territory: constructing group identity in Southeastern Europe
.
Rowman & Littlefield
. p. 132.
ISBN
978-0-8476-9809-7
.
- ^
Original text: "S? urise muntenilor cu domniia lui Mihai-vod?, to?ii cu o?ti ?i r?zboaie."
(in Romanian)
- ^
Boia, Lucian (2001).
History and myth in Romanian consciousness
. Central European University Press.
ISBN
978-9639116979
.
- ^
Petre Panaitescu ? Mihai Viteazul, Bucure?ti, 1936
- ^
Boia 1997, p. 133
- ^
Ordinul Mihai Viteazul
, tracesofwar.com, Retrieved 10 April 2008
- ^
The 100 Lei of 1992 and 1993 are listed as
KM # 111
Archived
28 May 2014 at the
Wayback Machine
of the
Krause Mishler
catalog
- ^
Homutescu.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Bolovan, Ioan; Kurt W. Treptow (1997).
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ISBN
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.
OCLC
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(2014).
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.
Humanitas
.
ISBN
978-973-50-4334-6
.
- Giurescu, Constantin C.
(2007) [1935].
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. Archived from
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3 March
2008
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- Iona?cu, Ion (1962). "Mihai Viteazul ?i autorii tratatului de la Alba Iulia (1595)".
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?"
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Erdely es Mihaly vajda tortenete, 1595?1601. okleveltarral
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