1878?1904 series of conquests and annexations by Ethiopian emperor Menelik II
Menelik's conquests
, also known as the
Agar Maqnat
(
Amharic
:
??? ????
,
romanized
:
?agar maqnat
,
lit.
'Colonization, Cultivation and Christianization of Land'),
[3]
were a series of expansionist wars and conquests carried out by Emperor
Menelik II
of
Shewa
to expand the
Ethiopian Empire
.
[4]
In 1866 Menelik II became the king of Shewa, and in 1878 began a series of wars to conquer land for the Ethiopian Empire and to increase Shewan supremacy within Ethiopia.
[5]
This was carried out predominantly with soldiers from the
Amhara
people of Shewa.
Menelik is viewed as the founder of modern
Ethiopia
as a result of the expansion.
[7]
[8]
Background
[
edit
]
After a period of disunity, much of the
19th century
saw the reign of two
Abyssinian
monarchs,
Tewodros II
(1855-68) and
Yohannes IV
(1871-89), who progressively centralized the state. The third and last emperor of the century,
Menelik II
, the King of Abyssinia's
Shewa
region, managed to bring all of northern Abyssinia under his control and subsequently embarked on a massive expansion of the
Ethiopian Empire
.
From the late 1880s, Menelik dispatched armies and
colonists
across the west, south, and southeast.
[10]
Menelik's expansions coincided with the era of
European colonial advances
in the
Horn of Africa
, during which the Ethiopian Empire received significant military resources from foreign powers.
France
in particular poured in arms into the country during the 1880s, alongside Russia and Italy; seeking to secure favor for
protectorate
status over the empire. The influx of military equipment facilitated Emperor Menelik's unprecedented campaign of
Amhara
conquest and expansion. The Emperor conveyed to his European counterparts his 'sacred
civilizing mission
' to extend the benefits of
Christian
rule to the 'heathens'.
Menelik became a signatory to the
Brussels Act of 1890
, which regulated the importation of arms into the African continent. Italy sponsored Ethiopia's inclusion in this act, enabling Abyssinia to "legally" import arms. This move also served to legitimize the arms shipments that had been ongoing for years prior from France. Thus when conflict later began with the Italians during the
First Italo-Ethiopian War
of 1895-6, the Ethiopian Empire had accrued a significant amount of modern weapons that allowed them to fight on similar terms as the European powers and maintain expansion.
[12]
British writer
Evelyn Waugh
describing this nineteenth century event stated:
The process (the creation of the Ethiopian Empire) was closely derived from the European model; sometimes the invaded areas were overawed by the show of superior force and accepted treaties of protection; sometimes they resisted and were slaughtered with the use of modern weapons which were being imported both openly and illicitly in enormous numbers; sometimes they were simply recorded as Ethiopian without their own knowledge.
Menelik's imperial strategy
[
edit
]
A system of
imperial
conquest effectively based on
settler colonialism
, involving the deployment of armed settlers in newly created military colonies, was widespread throughout the southern and western territories that came under Menelik's dominion.
Under the 'Neftenya-Gabbar scheme' the Ethiopian Empire had developed a relatively effective system of occupation and pacification. Soldier-settlers and their families moved into fortified villages known as
katamas
in strategic regions to secure the southern expansion. These armed settlers and their families were known as the
neftenya
and peasant farmers who were assigned to them the
gabbar
.
[15]
The Neftenya (
lit.
'
Gun-carrier
'
or
'
Armed settler
'
) were assigned gabbar from the locally conquered population, who effectively worked in
serfdom
for the conquerors.
The vast majority of the neftenya were
Shewans
. The neftenya-gabbar relationship was a '
feudal
-like patron client relationship' between the northern settlers and southern locals. As land was taken, the northern administrators became the owners and possessed the right to dispose of land as they pleased.
Those conquered found themselves displaced, often reduced to tenants on their own lands by the new Amhara ruling elite.
The feudal obligations imposed on the gabbar were so intensive that they continued to serve the family of a neftegna even after the latter's death.
The gabbar system worked efficiently for nearly half a century in financing the garrisoning and administration of the south until its formal dissolution in 1941.
This system was not employed in all parts of the regions Menelik expanded into for varying reasons. In the case of many southern lowlands 'fringes', the territory was not suitable for colonization by the Shewan highlander plough agriculturalists and the lowland
pastoralists
were far harder to manage and control than the settled
horticulturalists
of the southern highlands. These regions were instead raided for revenue extraction, often in the form of
livestock
, into the 20th century.
Though some
polities
negotiated differing levels of
autonomy
through tribute payments and taxation, elsewhere local populations were frequently decimated by violent
colonial
expansions that rested largely on
cultural assimilation
.
[10]
Due to economic motives driving the northern expansions, it was usually preferred to disturb indigenous economies as little as possible in regions where there was little resistance.
Extreme violence was carried out during the conquest of regions like the Kingdoms of
Wolaita
and
Kaffa
to the south, along with
Illubabor
and other territories in the
Sudanese borderlands
. Military expeditions into the
Somali
-inhabited
Ogaden
region under
Ras Makonnen
were characterized by massacres and expropriation, laying foundations for future incorporation into the
Ethiopian Empire
. Menelik's imperialism was culmination of a century of Abyssinian
militarization
. His army had expanded to such a degree that continual raiding and
pillaging
became a core feature of the empire, necessary to keep the youthful and armed population preoccupied.
University of Oxford
Professor of African History Richard Reid observes, "Menelik's empire was as brutally violent and as reliant on the atrocity-as-method genre of
imperialism
as the European colonial projects developing apace on Menelik's borders."
[10]
Early conquests
[
edit
]
Shewan
expansion had started before Menelik, as rulers of the region had started a southward thrust against the
Oromo
in the early part of the 19th century.
During the first half of the 1880s, then king of Shewa
Sahla Selassie
conducted numerous military expeditions against the Oromo people residing on the Shewan
plateau
.
[20]
Menelik's first battles to expand the empire occurred when he was still under the nominal authority of Emperor
Yohannes IV
during the 1870s. With Menelik's incorporations of
Wollo
to his north during the late 1870s, all of the central region had been consolidated.
Menelik dispatched an army against
Gojjam
to the east and achieved a victory. Emperor Yohannes punished Menelik and the ruler of Gojjam for going to war by taking away parts of their regions, but recognized 'Menelik's right to the south-west.' Having secured the
watershed
to his south-west, Menelik turn his attention to the Muslim inhabited south-east.
During this early period of expansion, Menelik brought the provincial nobility that traditionally dominated Abyssinia under his rule.
Hadiya
[
edit
]
In the late 1870s Menelik led a campaign to incorporate the lands of
Hadiya
which included the
Gurage people
into
Shewa
. In 1878, the Soddo Gurage living in Northern and Eastern Gurageland peacefully submitted to Menelik and their lands were left untouched by his armies, likely due to their shared
Ethiopian Orthodox
faith and prior submission to Negus
Sahle Selassie
, grandfather of the
Emperor
. However, in Western Gurage and Hadiya which was inhabited by the Sebat Bet,
Kebena
, and
Wolane
fiercely resisted Menelik.
[23]
They were led by
Hassan Enjamo
of
Kebena
who on the advice of his sheiks declared jihad against the Shewans. For over a decade Hassan Injamo fought to expel the Shewans from the Muslim areas of
Hadiya
and Gurage until 1888 when
Gobana Dacche
faced him in the
Battle of Jebdu Meda
where the Muslim Hadiya and Gurage army was defeated by the Shewans, and with that all of Gurageland was subdued.
[24]
[25]
The
Halaba
Hadiya however under their chief Barre Kagaw continued to resist until 1893 when the Abyssinians took advantage of the famine that had struck the region and led a conquest into their territory.
[26]
Welega
[
edit
]
By the early 1880s,
Shewan
and
Gojjam
forces had made their first forays over the
Gibe river
into the region of
Welega
ruled by king
Kumsa Moroda
from the
Machaa people
of the Oromo.
Ras Gobena
, an Oromo general serving Menelik, arrived in the region at the head of a well armed force of Shewan troops.
Menelik's primary motive in conquering Welega was control over the
gold producing
districts in the west.
Ras Gobenas campaigns in Western Welega from 1886 to 1888 established Shewan rule over the entire region and ended the threat of
Mahdist
incursions. Menelik's success in these Oromo regions were in great measure due to Ras Gobena, with his large cavalry force he conquered and extracted tribute from Oromo leaders for the Shewan court.
[29]
Arsi Oromo
[
edit
]
Menelik's campaign against the
Arsi people
of the
Oromo
were among his bloodiest and most sustained efforts. After a series of military campaigns over several years they were finally subjugated by
Shewan
firepower.
Conflicts between the Kingdom of Shewa and the Arsi Oromo date back to the 1840s when
Sahle Selassie
led an expedition against the Arsi. Shewans rulers had longed to pacify and incorporate this territory into their realm. In 1881, Menelik led a campaign against the Arsi Oromo, this campaign proved difficult, as the Oromos abandoned their homeland to wage
guerilla war
against the Shewan army, the Arsi inflicted significant losses against Menelik's forces through ambushes and raids. Menelik eventually left Arsi territory and his uncle
Darge Sahle Selassie
was left in charge of the campaign. In September 1886, Darge faced a large Arsi force at the
Battle of Azule
, the result was an overwhelming Shewan victory as the Arsi Oromo were completely defeated by the Shewan army. After the defeat of the Arsi at Azule the province of Arsi was pacified and Darge was named its governor.
[31]
[32]
After six military campaigns, during 1887 the Arsi finally were brought under the rule of Menelik. After the conquest, much of the best Arsi grazing land was given as war booty to soldiers.
Arsi Oromo
during the 1960s spoke of the era of Amhara rule beginning after their subjection in 1887 as the start of an 'era of miseries'.
Menelik's military expeditions pushing into southern Ethiopia set a pattern of razing entire districts, killing all male defender and then enslaving the women and children. From the initial raids Menelik and his commanders had seized thousands of prisoners, resulting in an increase in slavery on the domestic and international market. Before the mid-1890's Menelik rarely opposed the slave trade of captives taken during the expansions. Menelik gained half of the plunder and captives taken, while his soldiers and generals divided the rest according to their respective ranks. Despite publicly opposing slavery, Menelik actively supported it during the southern expansions.
[33]
Four years after the conquest of the Arsi, foreign travelers passing through their regions noted that they were regarded as slaves by the new rulers and in
sold openly in markets
.
The campaigns during 1885 in
Ittu
Oromo territory that had preceded the occupation of Harar left whole tracts of their territory depopulated.
[33]
Annexation of Harar
[
edit
]
From 1883 to 1885 the
Shewan
forces under Menelik attempted to invade the
Chercher
region of Harar and were defeated by the
Ittu
Oromo.
[34]
During 1886, Menelik had started embarking on a large scale campaign to subjugate the south.
[15]
In 1886 an
Italian
explorer and his entire party were massacred by soldiers from the
Emirate of Harar
, giving the Emperor an excuse to invade the Emirate of Harar. The Shewans then led an invasion force, however when this force was camped in
Hirna
the small army of
Emir Abdullah II
shot fireworks at the encampment, startling the Shewans and making them flee towards the
Awash River
during the
Battle of Hirna
.
Menelik first utilized the significant influx of European arms he received at Harar.
The Emperor wrote to European powers: "Ethiopia has been for 14 centuries a Christian island in a sea of pagans. If Powers at a distance come forward to partition Africa between them, I do not intend to remain an indifferent spectator."
[36]
He did not, sending word to Emir Abdullah, ruler of the historic city of Harar which was pivotal to Muslim East Africa, to accept his suzerainty. The Emir suggested that Menelik should accept Islam. Menelik promised to conquer Harar and turn the principal mosque into a church, saying "I will come to Harar and replace the Mosque by a Christian church. Await me." The Medihane Alam Church is proof Menelik kept his word.
[37]
[38]
[39]
In 1887 the Shewans sent another large force personally led by Menelik II to subjugate the Emirate of Harar. Emir Abdullah, in the
Battle of Chelenqo
, decided to attack early in the morning of
Ethiopian Christmas
assuming they would be unprepared and befuddled with food and alcohol, but was defeated as Menelik had awoken his army early expecting a surprise attack. The Emir then fled to the
Ogaden
and the Shewans conquered
Hararghe
.
[40]
[41]
Finally having conquered Harar, Menelik extended trade routes through the city, importing valuable goods such as arms, and exporting other valuables such as coffee. He would place his cousin,
Makonnen Wolde Mikael
in control of the city. Harari
oral tradition
recounts 300
Hafiz
and 700 newly-wed soldiers killed by Menelik's forces in the short battle. The remembrance of the seven hundred "wedded martyrs" became part of Harari wedding customs to this day, when every Harari groom is given fabric that is called "satti baqla" in Harari, which means "seven hundred." It's a rectangular cloth from white woven cotton ornamented with a red stripe along the edges symbolizing the martyrs' murders. When he presents it, the giver (who usually is the paternal uncle of the woman's father), whispers in the ear of the groom: "So that you do not forget.
[42]
[43]
The largest
Mosque
in Harar (known as Sheikh Bazikh, "The capital Mosque," or Raouf), located in Faras Magala, and the local
Madrassa
[
citation needed
]
were turned into churches, notably "Medhane Alem church" in 1887
[44]
by
Menelik II
after the conquest.
[45]
Conquest of Wolaita and Kaffa kingdoms
[
edit
]
Wolaita
[
edit
]
In 1890 Menelik invaded the
Kingdom of Wolaita
. The war of conquest has been described by
Bahru Zewde
as "one of the bloodiest campaigns of the whole period of expansion", and Wolayta oral tradition holds that 118,000
Welayta
and 90,000 Shewan troops died in the fighting.
[46]
Kawo (King)
Tona Gaga
, the last king of Welayta, was defeated and Welayta conquered in 1895. Welayta was then incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire. However, Welayta had a form of self-administrative status and was ruled by governors directly accountable to the king until the fall of Emperor
Haile Selassie
in 1974.
[46]
[47]
Kaffa
[
edit
]
The
Kingdom of Kaffa
was a powerful kingdom located south of the Gojeb river in the dense jungles of the
Kaffa mountains
. Due to constant invasions from the
Mecha Oromos
, the
Kafficho people
developed a very unique defense system unlike anything seen in the
Horn of Africa
. The Kafficho built very deep trenches (Hiriyoo) and ditches (Kuripoa) along the borders of the kingdom to prevent intruders from entering. They also used natural barriers such the
Gojeb River
and the mountains to repel invaders. As a result, Kaffa earned a reputation of being impenetrable and inaccessible to outsiders.
[48]
In 1895
Menelik II
ordered the Kingdom of Kaffa to be invaded and sent three armies led by Dejazmach
Tessema Nadew
, Ras Wolde Giyorgis and Dejazmach Demissew Nassibu supported by
Abba Jifar II
of
Jimma
(who submitted to Menelik) to conquer the mountainous kingdom.
Gaki Sherocho
the king of Kaffa hid in the hinterlands of his kingdom and resisted the armies of Menelik II until he was captured in 1897 and exiled to
Addis Ababa
. After the kingdom was conquered Ras Wolde Giyorgis was named its governor.
[49]
Expansion into Ogaden
[
edit
]
After conquering the city of
Harar
in 1887, Menelik announced a programme of ambitious expansion and colonialism to the European powers in 1891. This marked the start of a tentative yet violent invasion into the
Ogaden
.
[50]
In the first phase of invasion, Menelik dispatched his troops on frequent raids that terrorized the region. Indiscriminate killing and looting was commonplace before the raiding soldiers returned to their bases with stolen livestock. Repeatedly between 1890 and 1900, Ethiopian raiding parties into the Ogaden caused devastation.
The large scale importation of European arms completely upset the balance of power between the Somalis and the Ethiopian Empire, as the colonial powers blocked Somalis from receiving firearms.
[52]
Many clans in
British Somaliland
signed the protection treaties with the British in response to Menelik's Invasions, which dictated the protection of Somali rights and the maintenance of independence.
[53]
In 1897 in order to appease Menelik's expansionist policy Britain ceded almost half of the British Somaliland protectorate to Ethiopia in the
Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897
. Ethiopian authorities have since then based their claims to the Ogaden upon the 1897 treaty and the exchange of letters which followed it.
[54]
The 1897 treaty was legally void because it presumed an authority which the Somalis had never accorded to Great Britain, as agreements that had been signed between the British and Somali had been to protect lands.
While previous Ethiopian raids had been primarily disruptive to trade, Emperor
Meneliks
well armed incursions in the era of
colonialism
provoked significant unease among the
Somali
all the way to the Banaadir coast. A force of several thousand Ethiopian horseman armed with rifles pushed into the
Shabelle
valley near
Balad
, only a days march from
Mogadishu
during the spring of 1905. Several clans residing in the region engaged in battles with the invading forces, repulsing them.
[56]
In several other cases poorly armed Somali warriors devastated the invading armies. In 1893, British Army officer
Colonel Swayne
, who was visiting Imi was shown "the remains of the bivouac of an enormous Abyssinian army which had been defeated some two or three years before."
[57]
In the far eastern frontier largely inhabited by the Somalis, Professor of Anthropology Donald L. Donham observes that Menelik's imperial administration had dramatically failed to adopt to local religion and politics, while facing significant resistance at the start of the 20th century from the Somali anti-colonial
Dervish movement
.
As the Ethiopian Empire began expanding into Somali territories at the start of the 1890s,
Jigjiga
came under intermittent
military occupation
until 1900. At the start of the year, Abyssinian troops occupied the town and completed construction on a fort.
[59]
Following these incursions,
Amhara
settlers began arriving in Jigjiga and its surroundings for the first time.
[60]
That year the Somali Dervishes had their first major battle when they
attacked the Ethiopian garrison at Jigjiga
with the aim of returning looted livestock. The following year a joint British-Ethiopian military expedition was launched to crush the Dervishes. In the early decades of the 20th century, Ethiopia exerted no actual influence over the Ogaden east of
Jijiga
even after the treaty and ruled in name only. When the boundary commission attempted to demarcate the
treaty boundary
in 1934 the native Somalis were unaware that they were under Ethiopian rule.
[61]
Impact and legacy
[
edit
]
-
1879?1889.
-
1889?1896.
-
1897?1904.
The incorporation of the southern highlands created unprecedented resources for the imperial core. Before the mid-19th century, Emperor
Tewodros II
had relied on tribute from the central regions for revenue, but by the start of the 20th century, these same regions provided very little and the majority of state revenue was drawn from the south. Exaction on northern peasants by the imperial state was lightened, and the burden was shifted to the newly ruled southerners.
In contrast to imperial expansion into the central and northern highlands, where locals were protected by shared ethnicity and kinship, the people of the south lost most of their traditional lands to the Amhara rulers and were reduced to tenancy on their own lands.
The vast southwards expansions carried out by Emperor Menelik exacerbated the divide between the largely
Semetic
populated north and the primarily
Cushitic
inhabited south, creating the conditions which encouraged significant future social and political transformations.
In southern Ethiopia, the word Amhara is often treated synonymously to
Neftenya
, the title given to the soldiers Menelik employed in this period to colonize the people of the south while living off the indigenous population and their lands.
The southern expansions and raids fueled a national market for
slaves
, which Menelik aided and abetted, despite his public proclamations to the contrary.
[33]
See also
[
edit
]
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[
edit
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Facing the Ethiopian threat, many Somali clans accepted British protection.
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Martin, B. G. (2003).
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Girma, Zerihun; Imana, Gutema (2020). "The Impact of Somali Nationalism on the Amhara-Somali Ethnic Interaction in Jigjiga Town and its Surroundings (1940s?1990s)".
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Bibliography
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