Species of plant
Malus sieversii
is a
wild apple
native to the mountains of
Central Asia
in southern
Kazakhstan
. It has recently been shown to be the primary ancestor of most
cultivars
of the domesticated
apple
(
Malus domestica
). It was first described as
Pyrus sieversii
due to its similarities with
pears
in 1833 by
Carl Friedrich von Ledebour
, a German naturalist who saw them growing in the
Altai Mountains
.
[5]
Malus sieversii
grows in many different habitats.
[5]
They prefer high temperatures and short winters, but they are also found in the
Tian Shan
Mountains with long and harsh winters.
[5]
They are distributed mainly within the Yili valley as the damp climate is suitable for their growth.
[6]
[7]
It is a
deciduous
tree
growing 5 to 12 metres (16 to 39 ft), very similar in appearance to the domestic apple. Its pollen grains vary in size and are seen to be ovular when dry and spherical when swelled with water.
[7]
Its
fruit
is the largest of any species of
Malus
except
domestica
, up to 7 cm in diameter, equal in size to many modern
apple cultivars
. Unlike domesticated varieties, its leaves go red in autumn: 62% of the trees in the wild do this compared to only 2.8% of the regular apple plant or the
2,170 English cultivated varieties.
[8]
The species is now considered vulnerable to
extinction
.
Characteristics and growth
[
edit
]
M. sieversii
has the capability to reproduce vegetatively as they form root suckers, or
basal shoots
.
[5]
The clonal individual grows from the adventitious bud on the root, with identical genetic materials to the mother plant.
[5]
It was originally believed that wild apples produce root suckers only when upper plant parts are damaged.
[5]
However, more evidence suggested root-sucker growth occurs in healthy plants as a dispersal aid.
[5]
For wild apples, proper development of root suckers requires certain humidity and aeration levels in the surface soil, where the mother root is located. Successful root-sucker growth also depends on shoot arrangement, time of growth and health conditions of the mother plant.
[5]
Genetics of
self-incompatibility
, the system for preventing self-fertilization in angiosperms, have also been studied for
M. sieversii
.
[9]
Its genetic diversity in relation to self-incompatibility is substantially less when compared to its close relative,
Malus sylvestris
.
[9]
Although
M. sieversii
lacks this diversity, it can survive in the wild without intervention as long as no more diversity loss occurs.
[9]
The leading theory for this lack of diversity is due to a major
population bottleneck
during the
Last Glacial Maximum
which caused wild
M. sieversii
populations to scale back into a smaller area within the Yili Valley.
[9]
[10]
Growth cycle
[
edit
]
The growth cycle of
M. sieversii
could be divided into several stages from germination to developing fruit bearing trees, and to the death of aged trees.
[5]
- Period I starts from seed germination to the development of vegetative tree parts, and to the first round of fruiting.
[5]
A typical apple tree reaches age 6 to 8 in this period. Prominent primary growth and a significant number of root sucker growth are seen in this period.
[5]
- Period II involves more growth and fruit bearing.
[5]
Wild apple trees usually reach age 10 to 12 in this period.
[5]
The number of fruits increase significantly as prominent secondary growth and branching take place.
[5]
- Period III involves more growth and fruit bearing.
[5]
Wild apple trees enter regular fruiting and reach maximum fruit bearing in this period, and usually reach age 25 to 30.
[5]
Decreased branching rate, and less growth of crown periphery are seen.
[5]
A lot of vegetative growth is contributed by basal shoots (root suckers).
[5]
- Period IV is fully fruit bearing.
[5]
Development of trees fully ceases in this stage and they reach around 60 to 70 years of age.
[5]
Branching decreases as they slowly die off from the base to the periphery. After age 60 to 70, trees experience rapid desiccation of the branches, then death.
[5]
History and importance
[
edit
]
Malus sieversii
has previously been identified as the main contributor to the genome of the cultivated apple (
Malus domestica
), on the basis of
morphological
,
molecular
, and historical evidence.
[11]
Fruit traits including crispness, more flavour intensity and fruit weight have undergone differential selection by humans to produce
Malus domestica
as seen today.
[12]
The dispersal of
M. sieversii
and its progeny throughout history can be attributed to the
Silk Road
.
[13]
A
DNA analysis
in 2010 confirmed
M. sieversii
as the progenitor of the cultivated apple.
[14]
It has a highly variable genetic diversity therefore it is the genetic source for abiotic and biotic stress tolerance, many disease resistance and unique fruit traits.
[15]
Almaty
, the largest city in
Kazakhstan
, and formerly its capital, derives its name from the
Kazakh
word for "apple" (Alma), and is often translated as "full of apples" (the region surrounding Almaty is home to forests of
Malus sieversii
);
alma
is also "apple" in other
Turkic languages
, as well as in
Hungarian
.
[
citation needed
]
The threat of extinction
[
edit
]
After the collapse of the USSR and the closure of the Gardening Development Program, the local population began to actively cut down wild gardens in the Zailiyskiy Alatau. The vacated territories are used for building houses and grazing animals.
[
citation needed
]
Planting cultivated apple varieties in private households close to wild groves causes crossbreeding.
[16]
Renewed interest
[
edit
]
These and other
Malus
species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in harsh climates unsuitable for
M. domestica
, mainly for increased cold tolerance.
[17]
A study in 2020 has discovered various gene inserts involved in dormancy and cold resistance features, such as
heat shock proteins
, in wild apples.
[15]
In addition, desirable traits such as late flowering, early fruit maturity, short juvenility and stooling capability were studied by many breeding programs.
[18]
Malus sieversii
has recently been cultivated by the
United States Agricultural Research Service
, in hopes of finding genetic information of value in the breeding of the modern apple plant. Some, but not all, of the resulting trees show unusual disease resistance. The variation in their response to disease on an individual basis is, itself, a sign of how much more genetically diverse they are than their domesticated descendants. For instance, wild apples were found to have multiple blue mold resistant genes, specifically against
Penicillium expansum
.
[19]
The USDA Plant Genetic Resources Unit (PGRU) also conducted phenotypic analysis on
M. sieversii
seedlings, and has identified various pathogenic resistance including
apple scab
,
fire blight
, and
cedar apple rust
.
[20]
A research in 2001 found various insect resistances within
M. sieversii
seedlings, and has identified instances for further research on its resistance for
apple maggots
and apple leaf curling midges.
[13]
Effects of heat on
M. sieversii
were also studied in hot and arid regions, and they were found to be considerably drought tolerant and sunburn resistant.
[13]
[21]
Red-fleshed apples
[
edit
]
Malus sieversii
has been recently used as a critical source in the breeding of red-fleshed apples, due to its high genetic variability. This is seen as they are used to improve the stress resistance towards drought, cold, and pests of cultivated apple species.
[22]
Some neglected characteristics of
M. sieversii
, such as high-flavonoid contents (especially
anthocyanin
) and short juvenile phases, have recently been used for red-fleshed apple breeding since traditional red-fleshed apples are not rich in these flavonoids.
[22]
Using
M. sieversii
for breeding due to its high anthocyanin content has numerous benefits, including preventing cardiovascular disease and protecting against liver damage.
[23]
The variant of
M. sieversii
,
Malus sieversii f. niedzwetzkyana
, has been emphasized for the use of breeding red-fleshed apples since it has red flowers, fruit skin, and pulp; in addition to its high anthocyanin content.
[24]
[23]
When breeding
Malus sieversii f. niedzwetzkyana
, it was found that light results in higher anthocyanin production than those bred in the dark.
[23]
Hybrids of
Malus sieversii
have also been an interest for breeders of red-fleshed apples.
[25]
Conservation
[
edit
]
Malus sieversii
has been designated as second conservation priority in the China Plant Red Data Book, and has been marked as vulnerable by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
[26]
Human activities and natural disasters are the major contributors to the decline of
M. sieversii
natural population.
[5]
Fungal pathogens, such as
Phytophthora plurivora
and
Alternaria alternata
, also play a major role in the decline of
M. sieversii
populations, by degrading vegetative parts such as the fine root systems.
[27]
[28]
This immune vulnerability makes
M. sieversii
become susceptible to more parasites, such as pathogenic insects
Agrilus
mali
, to further destroy the population.
[27]
[29]
Ex situ conservation
, or seed banking, is believed to be a feasible long-term resolution to protect its genetic diversity, and has been seen in the United States using seeds collected from Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic.
[7]
[20]
In situ conservation
was also found with barbed wire fences being placed around regions distributed with
M. sieversii,
as seen in areas within Xinyuan, China.
[7]
A study in 2016 has shown the effectiveness of protecting
M. sieversii
populations in situ through
stratification
and seed coat removal.
[7]
Also, in situ enclosures are more effective in higher elevations as they are at less risk of human and insect injuries.
[7]
Aside from traditional conservation methods,
biofertilizer
has shown effective results inhibiting fungal pathogen,
Alternaria alternata
in wild apple trees. It does this by improving antioxidant capability of wild apple trees following the infection, promoting root growth and enhancing soil metabolism.
[28]
Recently, a combination of innovative methods including cloning and plant hormone treatment has also shown effective results in regenerating wild apple populations.
[29]
Wild apple trees were heavily lumbered for economical and agricultural uses in the mountains of Kazakhstan during the 1800s.
[5]
Wild apple forests were turned into pastureland, which greatly changed the soil covering, and damaged young seedlings and roots.
[5]
Prickly shrubs, such as eglantine and
barberry
exhibiting symbiotic relationships with wild apples by shielding them from predators were also cut.
[5]
This further worsened the growing condition for wild apples, and severely weakened
root suckers
and therefore
vegetative propagation
.
[5]
Gallery
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
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"
.
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.
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doi
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.
{{
cite journal
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- ^
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- ^
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External links
[
edit
]
|
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Malus sieversii
| |
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Pyrus sieversii
| |
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