Member of an 1810s English anti-textile-machinery organisation
The
Luddites
were members of a 19th-century movement of English textile workers who opposed the use of certain types of cost-saving / wage stealing machinery, and often destroyed the machines in clandestine raids. They protested against manufacturers who used machines in "a fraudulent and deceitful manner" to replace the skilled labour of workers and drive down wages by producing inferior goods.
[1]
[2]
Members of the group referred to themselves as Luddites, self-described followers of "
Ned Ludd
", a legendary weaver whose name was used as a pseudonym in threatening letters to mill owners and government officials.
[3]
The Luddite movement began in
Nottingham, England
, and spread to the
North West
and
Yorkshire
between 1811 and 1816.
[4]
Mill and factory owners took to shooting protesters and eventually the movement was suppressed by legal and military force, which included
execution
and
penal transportation
of accused and convicted Luddites.
[5]
Over time, the term has been used to refer to those opposed to industrialisation, automation, computerisation, or new technologies or even progress in general.
[6]
Etymology
[
edit
]
The name Luddite (
) occurs in the movement's writings as early as 1811.
[3]
The movement utilised the eponym of
Ned Ludd
, an apocryphal apprentice who allegedly smashed two
stocking frames
in 1779 after being criticized and instructed to change his method. The name often appears as captain, General, or King Ludd. Different versions of the legends place his residence in
Anstey
, near Leicester, or
Sherwood Forest
like
Robin Hood
.
[7]
Historical precedents
[
edit
]
The machine-breaking of the Luddites followed from previous outbreaks of sabotage in the English textile industry, especially in the hosiery and woolen trades. Organized action by
stockingers
had occurred at various times since 1675.
[8]
[9]
[10]
In
Lancashire
, new cotton spinning technologies were met with violent resistance in 1768 and 1779. These new inventions produced textiles faster and cheaper because they could be operated by less-skilled, low-wage labourers.
[11]
These struggles sometimes resulted in government suppression, via Parliamentary acts such as the
Protection of Stocking Frames, etc. Act 1788
.
Periodic uprisings relating to asset prices also occurred in other contexts in the century before Luddism. Irregular rises in
food prices
provoked the
Keelmen
to riot in the
port of Tyne
in 1710
[12]
and tin miners to steal from granaries at
Falmouth
in 1727.
[a]
There was a rebellion in
Northumberland
and
Durham
in 1740, and an assault on Quaker corn dealers in 1756.
Malcolm L. Thomas argued in his 1970 history
The Luddites
that machine-breaking was one of the very few tactics that workers could use to increase pressure on employers, undermine lower-paid competing workers, and create solidarity among workers. "These attacks on machines did not imply any necessary hostility to machinery as such; machinery was just a conveniently exposed target against which an attack could be made."
[10]
Historian
Eric Hobsbawm
has called their machine wrecking "
collective bargaining
by riot", which had been a tactic used in Britain since the Restoration because manufactories were scattered throughout the country, and that made it impractical to hold large-scale strikes.
[14]
An agricultural variant of Luddism occurred during the widespread
Swing Riots
of 1830 in southern and eastern England, centring on breaking
threshing machines
.
[15]
Peak activity: 1811?1817
[
edit
]
- See also
Barthelemy Thimonnier
, whose sewing machines were destroyed by tailors
The Luddite movement emerged during the harsh economic climate of the
Napoleonic Wars
, which saw a rise in difficult working conditions in the new textile factories. Luddites objected primarily to the rising popularity of automated textile equipment, threatening the jobs and livelihoods of skilled workers as this technology allowed them to be replaced by cheaper and less skilled workers.
[1]
[
failed verification
]
The movement began in
Arnold
,
Nottingham
, on 11 March 1811 and spread rapidly throughout England over the following two years.
[16]
[1]
The British economy suffered greatly in 1810 to 1812, especially in terms of high unemployment and inflation. The causes included the high cost of the wars with Napoleon, Napoleon's
Continental System
of economic warfare, and
escalating conflict with the United States.
The crisis led to widespread protest and violence, but the middle classes and upper classes strongly supported the government, which used the army to suppress all working-class unrest, especially the Luddite movement.
[17]
[18]
The Luddites met at night on the moors surrounding industrial towns to practice military-like drills and manoeuvres. Their main areas of operation began in
Nottinghamshire
in November 1811, followed by the
West Riding of Yorkshire
in early 1812, and then
Lancashire
by March 1813. They wrecked specific types of machinery that posed a threat to the particular industrial interests in each region. In the Midlands, these were the "wide" knitting frames used to make cheap and inferior lace articles. In the North West, weavers sought to eliminate the steam-powered looms threatening wages in the cotton trade. In Yorkshire, workers opposed the use of shearing frames and gig mills to finish woolen cloth.
[19]
Many Luddite groups were highly organized and pursued machine-breaking as one of several tools for achieving specific political ends. In addition to the raids, Luddites coordinated public demonstrations and the mailing of letters to local industrialists and government officials.
[20]
These letters explained their reasons for destroying the machinery and threatened further action if the use of "obnoxious" machines continued.
[21]
The writings of
Midlands
Luddites often justified their demands through the legitimacy of the Company of Framework Knitters, a recognized public body that already openly negotiated with
masters
through named representatives. In
North West England
, textile workers lacked these long-standing trade institutions and their letters composed an attempt to achieve recognition as a united body of tradespeople. As such, they were more likely to include petitions for governmental reforms, such as increased minimum wages and the cessation of child labor. Northwestern Luddites were also more likely to use radical language linking their movement to that of American and French revolutionaries. In
Yorkshire
, the letter-writing campaign shifted to more violent threats against local authorities viewed as complicit in the use of offensive machinery to exert greater commercial control over the labor market.
In
Yorkshire
, the croppers (who were highly skilled and highly paid) faced mass unemployment due to the introduction of cropping machines by Enoch Taylor of Marsden.
[22]
This sparked the Luddite movement among the croppers of Yorkshire, who used a power hammer dubbed "Enoch" to break the frames of the cropping machines. They called it Enoch to mock Enoch Taylor, and when they broke the frames they purportedly shouted "Enoch made them, and Enoch shall break them."
[23]
Luddites clashed with
government troops
at Burton's Mill in
Middleton
and at
Westhoughton Mill
, both in Lancashire.
[24]
The Luddites and their supporters anonymously sent death threats to, and possibly attacked, magistrates and food merchants. Activists smashed Heathcote's lace making machine in Loughborough in 1816.
He and other industrialists had secret chambers constructed in their buildings that could be used as hiding places during an attack.
[26]
In 1817
Jeremiah Brandreth
, an unemployed Nottingham
stockinger
and probable ex-Luddite, led the
Pentrich Rising
. While this was a general uprising unrelated to machinery, it can be viewed as the last major Luddite act.
[27]
Government response
[
edit
]
The
British government
ultimately dispatched 12,000 troops to suppress Luddite activity, which historian
Eric Hobsbawm
said was a larger number than the army which the
Duke of Wellington
led during the
Peninsular War
.
[b]
Four Luddites, led by a man named George Mellor, ambushed and assassinated mill owner William Horsfall of Ottiwells Mill in
Marsden, West Yorkshire
, at
Crosland Moor
in
Huddersfield
. Horsfall had remarked that he would "Ride up to his saddle in Luddite blood".
[29]
Mellor fired the fatal shot to Horsfall's groin, and all four men were arrested. One of the men, Benjamin Walker, turned informant, and the other three were hanged.
[30]
[31]
[32]
Lord Byron
denounced what he considered to be the plight of the working class, the government's inane policies and ruthless repression in the
House of Lords
on 27 February 1812: "I have been in some of the most oppressed provinces of Turkey; but never, under the most despotic of infidel governments, did I behold such squalid wretchedness as I have seen since my return, in the very heart of a Christian country".
[33]
Government officials sought to suppress the Luddite movement with a mass trial at
York
in January 1813, following the attack on Cartwrights Mill at Rawfolds near Cleckheaton. The government charged over 60 men, including Mellor and his companions, with various crimes in connection with Luddite activities. While some of those charged were actual Luddites, many had no connection to the movement. Although the proceedings were legitimate jury trials, many were abandoned due to lack of evidence and 30 men were acquitted. These trials were certainly intended to act as
show trials
to deter other Luddites from continuing their activities. The harsh sentences of those found guilty, which included
execution
and
penal transportation
, quickly ended the movement.
[5]
[34]
Parliament made "machine breaking" (i.e. industrial
sabotage
) a
capital crime
with the
Frame Breaking Act
of 1812.
[35]
Lord Byron opposed this legislation, becoming one of the few prominent defenders of the Luddites after the treatment of the defendants at the York trials.
[36]
Legacy
[
edit
]
The Luddites (specifically the croppers, those who operated cropping machinery) are memorialized in the
Yorkshire
-area folk song "The Cropper Lads," which has been recorded by artists such as
Lou Killen
and
Maddy Prior
.
[37]
The croppers were very highly skilled and highly paid before the introduction of cropping machinery, and thus had more to lose and more reason to rebel against the factory owners' misuse of machinery. Another traditional song which celebrates the Luddites is the song "The Triumph of General Ludd," which was recorded by
Chumbawamba
for their 1988 album
English Rebel Songs
.
[38]
In the 19th century, occupations that arose from the growth of trade and shipping in ports, also as "domestic" manufacturers, were notorious for precarious employment prospects. Underemployment was chronic during this period,
[39]
and it was common practice to retain a larger workforce than was typically necessary for insurance against labour shortages in boom times.
[39]
Moreover, the organization of manufacture by merchant capitalists in the textile industry was inherently unstable. While the financiers' capital was still largely invested in raw materials, it was easy to increase commitment when trade was good and almost as easy to cut back when times were bad. Merchant capitalists lacked the incentive of later factory owners, whose capital was invested in buildings and plants, to maintain a steady rate of production and return on fixed capital. The combination of seasonal variations in wage rates and violent short-term fluctuations springing from harvests and war produced periodic outbreaks of violence.
[39]
Modern usage
[
edit
]
Nowadays, the term "Luddite" often is used to describe someone who is opposed or resistant to new technologies.
[40]
In 1956, during a British Parliamentary debate, a
Labour
spokesman said that "organised workers were by no means wedded to a 'Luddite Philosophy'."
By 2006, the term
neo-Luddism
had emerged to describe opposition to many forms of technology.
According to a manifesto drawn up by the Second Luddite Congress (April 1996;
Barnesville, Ohio
), neo-Luddism is "a leaderless movement of passive resistance to consumerism and the increasingly bizarre and frightening technologies of the
Computer Age
".
[43]
The term "Luddite fallacy" is used by economists about the fear that
technological unemployment
inevitably generates
structural unemployment
and is consequently
macroeconomically
injurious. If a technological innovation reduces necessary labour inputs in a given sector, then the industry-wide cost of production falls, which lowers the competitive price and increases the equilibrium supply point that, theoretically, will require an increase in aggregate labour inputs.
[44]
During the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, the dominant view among economists has been that belief in long-term technological unemployment was indeed a
fallacy
. More recently
[
when?
]
, there has been increased support for the view that the benefits of automation are not equally distributed.
[45]
[46]
[47]
See also
[
edit
]
Explanatory notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The Falmouth magistrates reported to the Duke of Newcastle (16 November 1727) that "the unruly tinners" had "broke open and plundered several cellars and granaries of corn." Their report concludes with a comment which suggests that they were not able to understand the rationale of the direct action of the tinners: "The occasion of these outrages was pretended by the rioters to be a scarcity of corn in the county, but this suggestion is probably false, as most of those who carried off the corn gave it away or sold it at a quarter price." PRO, SP 36/4/22.
- ^
Hobsbawm has popularized this comparison and refers to the original statement in
Frank Ongley Darvall
(1934)
Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England
, London, Oxford University Press, p. 260.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
Conniff, Richard (March 2011).
"What the Luddites Fought Against"
.
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.
Archived
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. Retrieved
19 October
2016
.
- ^
"Who were the Luddites?"
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Archived
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. Retrieved
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2016
.
- ^
a
b
Binfield, Kevin (2004). "Foreword".
Writings of the Luddites
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ISBN
1421416964
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- ^
Linton, David (Fall 1992). "The Luddites: How Did They Get That Bad Reputation?".
Labor History
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doi
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.
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.
- ^
a
b
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the original
on 26 March 2012
. Retrieved
12 May
2012
.
- ^
"Luddite"
[
dead link
]
.
Compact Oxford English Dictionary
at AskOxford.com. Accessed 22 February 2010.
- ^
"Power, Politics and Protest | the Luddites"
. Learning Curve. The National Archives.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
Binfield, Kevin (2004).
Luddites and Luddism
. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- ^
Rude, George (2001).
The Crowd in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances in France and England, 1730?1848
. Serif.
- ^
a
b
Thomis, Malcolm (1970).
The Luddites: Machine Breaking in Regency England
. Shocken.
- ^
Merchant, Brian (2 September 2014).
"You've Got Luddites All Wrong"
.
Vice
.
Archived
from the original on 23 May 2019
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
"Historical events ? 1685?1782 | Historical Account of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (pp. 47?65)"
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- ^
Autor, D. H.; Levy, F.; Murnane, R. J. (1 November 2003).
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.
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118
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.
hdl
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on 15 March 2010.
- ^
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ISBN
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.
OL
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.
- ^
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.
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.
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.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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2015
.
- ^
Roger Knight,
Britain Against Napoleon
(2013), pp. 410?412
- ^
Francois Crouzet,
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(1990) pp. 277?279
- ^
Binfield, Kevin (2004). "Northwestern Luddism".
Writings of the Luddites
. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 34.
ISBN
1421416964
.
- ^
Sale, Kirkpatrick (1996). "The Luddites: November?December 1811".
Rebels against the future: the Luddites and their war on the Industrial Revolution: lessons for the computer age
. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. pp. 74?77.
ISBN
0201407183
.
- ^
Mueller, Gavin (2021). "The Nights of King Ludd".
Breaking Things at Work: The Luddites Are Right About Why You Hate Your Job
. Verso. p. 20.
ISBN
978-1786636775
.
- ^
"Marsden History Group"
.
www.marsdenhistory.co.uk
.
Archived
from the original on 18 April 2024
. Retrieved
18 April
2024
.
- ^
"Enoch the Power Hammer"
.
www.nigeltyas.co.uk
.
Archived
from the original on 18 April 2024
. Retrieved
18 April
2024
.
- ^
Dinwiddy, J.R. (1992).
"Luddism and Politics in the Northern Counties"
.
Radicalism and Reform in Britain, 1780?1850
. London: Hambledon Press. pp. 371?401.
ISBN
9781852850623
.
- ^
"Workmen discover secret chambers"
.
BBC
.
Archived
from the original on 24 February 2021
. Retrieved
31 December
2012
.
- ^
Summer D. Leibensperger, "Brandreth, Jeremiah (1790?1817) and the Pentrich Rising."
The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest
(2009): 1?2.
- ^
Sharp, Alan (2015).
Grim Almanac of York
. The History Press.
ISBN
9780750964562
.
- ^
"Murder of William Horsfall by Luddites, 1812"
.
Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com
.
Archived
from the original on 2 January 2017
. Retrieved
23 June
2023
.
- ^
"William Horsfall (1770?1812) ? Huddersfield Exposed: Exploring the History of the Huddersfield Area"
.
Huddersfield.exposed
.
Archived
from the original on 1 June 2023
. Retrieved
23 June
2023
.
- ^
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. The Luddite Bicentenary ? 1811?1817. 8 January 2013.
Archived
from the original on 19 September 2020
. Retrieved
10 October
2020
.
- ^
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.
Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)
. 27 February 1812.
Archived
from the original on 14 May 2023
. Retrieved
23 June
2023
.
- ^
Elizabeth Gaskell: The Life of Charlotte Bronte, Vol. 1, Ch. 6, for a contemporaneous description of the attack on Cartwright.
- ^
"Destruction of Stocking Frames, etc. Act 1812"
at books.google.com
- ^
"Lord Byron and the Luddites | The Socialist Party of Great Britain"
.
worldsocialism.org
. Archived from
the original
on 24 June 2016
. Retrieved
22 November
2016
.
- ^
"The Cropper Lads (Roud -; TYG 62)"
.
mainlynorfolk.info
.
Archived
from the original on 18 April 2024
. Retrieved
18 April
2024
.
- ^
"General Ludd's Triumph"
.
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.
Archived
from the original on 18 April 2024
. Retrieved
18 April
2024
.
- ^
a
b
c
Charles Wilson, "England's Apprenticeship, 1603?1763" (1965), pp. 344?345. PRO, SP 36/4/22.
- ^
"Luddite Definition & Meaning"
.
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.
Archived
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. Retrieved
18 June
2020
.
- ^
Sale, Kirkpatrick (1 February 1997).
"America's New Luddites"
.
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. Archived from
the original
on 30 June 2002.
- ^
Jerome, Harry (1934).
Mechanization in Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
. pp. 32?35.
Archived
from the original on 24 February 2017
. Retrieved
6 May
2014
.
- ^
Krugman, Paul
(12 June 2013).
"Sympathy for the Luddites"
.
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.
Archived
from the original on 28 June 2015
. Retrieved
14 July
2015
.
- ^
Ford 2009
, Chpt 3, 'The Luddite Fallacy'
- ^
Lord Skidelsky
(12 June 2013).
"Death to Machines?"
.
Project Syndicate
.
Archived
from the original on 14 July 2015
. Retrieved
14 July
2015
.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Ford, Martin R. (2009),
The Lights in the Tunnel: Automation, Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future
, Acculant Publishing,
ISBN
978-1448659814
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Anderson, Gary M., and Robert D. Tollison. "Luddism as cartel enforcement."
Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics (JITE)/Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Staatswissenschaft
142.4 (1986): 727?738.
JSTOR
40750927
.
- Archer, John E. (2000). "Chapter 4: Industrial Protest".
Social unrest and popular protest in England, 1780?1840
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-57656-7
.
- Bailey, Brian J (1998).
The Luddite Rebellion
. NYU Press.
ISBN
0-8147-1335-1
.
- Darvall, F.
Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England
(Oxford University Press, 1934)
- Dinwiddy, John. "Luddism and politics in the northern counties."
Social History
4.1 (1979): 33?63.
- Fox, Nicols (2003).
Against the Machine: The Hidden Luddite History in Literature, Art, and Individual Lives
. Island Press.
ISBN
1-55963-860-5
.
- Grint, Keith & Woolgar, Steve (1997).
"The Luddites:
Diablo ex Machina
"
.
The machine at work: technology, work, and organization
. Wiley-Blackwell.
ISBN
978-0-7456-0924-9
.
- Haywood, Ian. "Unruly People: The Spectacular Riot." in
Bloody Romanticism
(Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006) pp. 181?222.
- Hobsbawm, E. J. (1952).
"The Machine Breakers"
.
Past & Present
(1): 57?70.
doi
:
10.1093/past/1.1.57
.
Archived
from the original on 13 April 2021
. Retrieved
19 September
2012
.
- Horn, Jeff. "Machine-Breaking and the 'Threat from Below' in Great Britain and France during the Early Industrial Revolution." in
Crowd actions in Britain and France from the middle ages to the modern world
(Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2015) pp. 165?178.
- Jones, Steven E. (2006).
Against technology: from the Luddites to Neo-Luddism
. CRC Press.
ISBN
978-0-415-97868-2
.
- Linebaugh, Peter.
Ned Ludd & Queen Mab: machine-breaking, romanticism, and the several commons of 1811-12
(PM Press, 2012).
- Linton, David. "The Luddites: How did they get that bad reputation?"
Labor History
33.4 (1992): 529?537.
doi
:
10.1080/00236569200890281
.
- McGaughey, Ewan (2018). "Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy". ssrn.com.
SSRN
3044448
.
- Merchant, Brian (2023).
Blood in the Machine
.
Little, Brown and Company
.
ISBN
9780316487740
.
- Munger, Frank.
"Suppression of Popular Gatherings in England, 1800?1830"
Archived
3 August 2021 at the
Wayback Machine
.
American Journal of Legal History
25 (1981): 111+.
- Navickas, Katrina. "The search for 'general Ludd': The mythology of Luddism."
Social History
30.3 (2005): 281?295.
- O’Rourke, Kevin Hjortshøj, Ahmed S. Rahman, and Alan M. Taylor. "Luddites, the industrial revolution, and the demographic transition."
Journal of Economic Growth
18.4 (2013): 373?409.
JSTOR
42635331
.
- Pallas, Stephen J.
"
'The Hell that Bigots Frame': Queen Mab, Luddism, and the Rhetoric of Working-Class Revolution".
Journal for the Study of Radicalism
12.2 (2018): 55?80.
doi
:
10.14321/jstudradi.12.2.0055
.
JSTOR
10.14321/jstudradi.12.2.0055
.
- Patterson, A. Temple. "Luddism, Hampden Clubs, and Trade Unions in Leicestershire, 1816?17."
English Historical Review
63.247 (1948): 170?188.
online
Archived
21 May 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
- Poitras, Geoffrey.
"The Luddite trials: Radical suppression and the administration of criminal justice"
Archived
21 May 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
.
Journal for the Study of Radicalism
14.1 (2020): 121?166.
- Pynchon, Thomas (28 October 1984).
"Is It O.k. to Be a Luddite?"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on 29 March 2021
. Retrieved
19 November
2019
.
- Randall, Adrian (2002).
Before the Luddites: Custom, Community and Machinery in the English Woollen Industry, 1776?1809
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-89334-3
.
- Rude, George (2005). "Chapter 5, Luddism".
The crowd in History, 1730?1848
. Serif.
ISBN
978-1-897959-47-3
.
- Sale, Kirkpatrick (1995).
Rebels against the future: the Luddites and their war on the Industrial Revolution: lessons for the computer age
. Basic Books.
ISBN
0-201-40718-3
.
- Stollinger, Roman.
"The Luddite rebellion: Past and present"
Archived
19 December 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
.
wiiw Monthly Report
11 (2018): 6?11.
- Thomis, Malcolm I.
The Luddites: Machine-Breaking in Regency England
(Archon Books. 1970).
- Thompson, E. P.
(1968).
The Making of the English Working Class
.
- Wasserstrom, Jeffrey.
"
'Civilization' and Its Discontents: The Boxers and Luddites as Heroes and Villains."
Theory and Society
(1987): 675?707.
JSTOR
657679
.
Primary sources
[
edit
]
External links
[
edit
]
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Luddite
.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Luddism
.
Look up
Luddite
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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