1204?1261 Crusader state on the former Byzantine Empire
The
Latin Empire
, also referred to as the
Latin Empire of Constantinople
, was a feudal
Crusader state
founded by the leaders of the
Fourth Crusade
on lands captured from the
Byzantine Empire
. The Latin Empire was intended to replace the Byzantine Empire as the Western-recognized
Roman Empire
in the east, with a
Catholic
emperor enthroned in place of the
Eastern Orthodox
Roman emperors. The main objective of the Latin Empire was planned by
Venice
, which promoted the creation of this state for their self-benefit.
[3]
The Fourth Crusade had originally been called to retake the
Muslim
-controlled city of
Jerusalem
, but a sequence of economic and political events culminated in the Crusader army
sacking
the city of
Constantinople
, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Originally, the plan had been to restore the deposed Byzantine Emperor
Isaac II Angelos
, who had been usurped by
Alexios III Angelos
, to the throne. The crusaders had been promised financial and military aid by Isaac's son
Alexios IV
, with which they had planned to continue to Jerusalem. When the crusaders reached Constantinople, the situation quickly turned volatile, and while Isaac and Alexios briefly ruled, the crusaders did not receive the payment they had hoped for. In April 1204, they captured and plundered the city's enormous wealth.
The crusaders selected their own emperor from among their own ranks,
Baldwin of Flanders
, and divided the territory of the Byzantine Empire into various new vassal crusader states. The Latin Empire's authority was immediately challenged by Byzantine
rump states
led by the
Laskaris
family (connected to the
Angelos
dynasty of 1185?1204) in
Nicaea
and the
Komnenos
family (which had
ruled
as Byzantine Emperors 1081?1185) in
Trebizond
. From 1224 to 1242, the
Komnenos Doukas
family, also connected to the Angeloi, challenged Latin authority from
Thessalonica
. The Latin Empire failed to attain political or economic dominance over the other Latin powers that had been established in former Byzantine territories in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, especially
Venice
, and after a short initial period of military successes, it went into a steady decline due to constant war with
Bulgaria
to the north and the various Byzantine claimants. Eventually, the
Nicene Empire
recovered Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire under
Michael VIII Palaiologos
in 1261. The last Latin emperor,
Baldwin II
, went into exile, but the imperial title survived, with
several pretenders
to it, until the 14th century.
The incontestable Venetian dominance in the region was not limited to the practical respect but was also demonstrated by the new title adopted by the doges, which is 'Dominus quartae partis et dimidie totius Imperii Romaniae', attached to the one of 'Dux Venetiarum, Dalmatiae Croatiaeque'.
[4]
Beginning with the letters of Innocent III, dated 20 June 1203 and 29 January 1205, the Papacy often used this term too.
[5]
The term
Romania
("Land of the Romans") had been used as a vernacular name for centuries, first by the inhabitants of the entire Late Roman Empire, then by the population of the Byzantine Empire.
Etymology
[
edit
]
Seal of
Philip of Courtenay
, Latin Emperor in exile 1273?1283. His title in the seal is
Dei gratia imperator Romaniae et semper augustus
("By the Grace of God, Emperor of Romania, ever august").
The term "Latin Empire" was not contemporary, and was first used by historians in the 16th century to distinguish the Crusader state from the classical
Roman Empire
and the
Byzantine Empire
, all of which called themselves "Roman". The term "Latin" was chosen because the crusaders (
Franks
, Venetians, and other Westerners) were Roman Catholic and used Latin as their liturgical and scholarly language in contrast to the Eastern Orthodox locals who used
Greek
in both liturgy and common speech. The Byzantines referred to the Latin Empire as the
Frankokratia
'rule of the Franks', or the
Latinokratia
'rule of the Latins'.
[6]
Founding treaties issued by the crusaders specifically refer to the empire as the
imperium Constantinopolitanum
("Empire of Constantinople"). Although this is a marked departure from the standard Byzantine nomenclature and ideology, designating the empire as the
Basileia Rh?mai?n
'Empire of the Romans',
imperium Constantinopolitanum
was the standard name used for the eastern empire in western sources, such as in papal correspondence, and suggests that the Latin leaders viewed themselves as "taking over" the empire rather than "replacing" it. It would have been difficult for the crusaders to justify referring to the empire as "Roman" considering that Western Europe generally held the Germanic
Holy Roman Empire
to represent the legitimate Roman Empire.
[7]
Seal of
Baldwin I
, the first Latin Emperor. The abbreviation
Rom.
leaves it open to interpretation if he refers to
Romaniae
'Romania' or
Romanorum
'the Romans'
The full title actually used by the first Latin Emperor,
Baldwin I
, was
Balduinus dei gratia fidelissimus in Christo imperator a Deo coronatus Romanorum moderator et semper augustus
, a near perfect replication of the one used by
Alexios IV Angelos
, placed on the throne by the crusaders previously, in a letter (only known in its Latin version) to
Pope Innocent III
:
fidelis in Christo imperator a Deo coronatus Romanorum moderator et semper augustus
. Letters by Baldwin to Pope Innocent III give his title as
imperator Constantinopolitanus
, possibly altered by Papal scribes as the Pope recognized the Holy Roman Emperor as the
imperator Romanorum
. In his seals, Baldwin abbreviated
Romanorum
as
Rom.
, conveniently leaving it open for interpretation whether he referred to
Romaniae
'land of the Romans' or
Romanorum
'the Romans'. It is probably more likely that he meant
Romanorum
. Baldwin's successor
Henry
called the empire
imperium Romanum
at least in one letter.
[7]
A Venetian statesman
Marino Sanuto the Elder
used yet another appellative,
Sebast? Latino Basilia ton Rh?mai?n
(Σεβαστ? Λατ?νο βασιλι? των Ρωμα?ων, lit. "August Latin Empire of the Romans").
[8]
The term "Romania" had been a vernacular name used for centuries by the population of the Late Roman polity for their country.
[9]
[10]
Three different versions of imperial titulature are attested under Henry;
Henricus Dei Gratia Imperator Romaniae
'Emperor of Romania',
Henricus Dei Gratia Imperator Romanorum
'Emperor of the Romans' and
Henricus Dei Gratia Imperator Constantinopolitani
'Emperor of Constantinople', possibly intended for different recipients. Usage of the title Emperor of Constantinople may not just have been to appease the Pope and Western Europe, but might also have been used to legitimize the rule of the Latin Emperors in regards to the Byzantines that they ruled. Possession of the city itself was a key legitimizing factor that set the Latin Emperors apart from Byzantine claimants in
Nicaea
,
Trebizond
and
Thessalonica
.
[7]
History
[
edit
]
Origins
[
edit
]
A 19th century tomb marker of the probable location of the tomb of
Enrico Dandolo
, the leader of the Fourth Crusade and Doge of Venice, inside the
Hagia Sophia
After the
Sack of Constantinople,
the crusaders agreed to divide up Byzantine territory. In the
Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae
, signed on 1 October 1204, three eighths of the empire?including
Crete
and other islands?went to the
Republic of Venice
. The Latin Empire claimed the remainder and exerted control over:
Further duchies were projected in
Asia Minor
, at
Nicaea
(for
Louis of Blois
),
Nicomedia
(
Thierry de Loos
),
Philadelphia
(
Stephen du Perche
), and
Neokastra
. These duchies remained theoretical, due to the establishment of the
Empire of Nicaea
in the area.
Nicaea itself was never occupied and Louis of Blois was
killed
in 1205.
Thierry de Loos was captured by the Nicaeans in 1207 and, although released, left the Latin Empire two years later. After a brief Nicaean reconquest, Nicomedia returned to Latin control, but the
ducatus Nichomedie
remained part of the Imperial domain.
Philadelphia never came under actual Latin control, although the Latin emperor Henry of Flanders laid claim to the region after defeating the local strongman,
Theodore Mangaphas
, in 1205.
The duchy of Neokastra (
ducatus Novi Castri
) on the other hand was never accorded to a single holder, but was divided among the
Knights Hospitaller
(one quarter) and other feudatories. The term "duchy" in this case reflects the earlier Byzantine term
theme
, usually governed by a
doux
, to designate a province.
The
Doge of Venice
did not rank as a vassal to the Latin Empire. Still, his position in control of three-eighths of its territory and of parts of Constantinople itself ensured Venice's influence in the Empire's affairs. However, much of the former Byzantine territory remained in the hands of rival
successor states
led by Byzantine Greek aristocrats, such as the
Despotate of Epirus
, the
Empire of Nicaea
, and the
Empire of Trebizond
, each bent on reconquest from the Latins.
On 9 May 1204,
Baldwin I
was elected the emperor with Venetian support, and crowned on 16 May in the Hagia Sophia in a ceremony that closely followed Eastern Roman practices.
Not long after the coronation, Baldwin ventured out into the Thracian countryside, posturing not as a conqueror but as a legitimate ruler, expecting to be universally acclaimed by the populace as the Emperor of the Romans.
The establishment of the Latin Empire had the curious effect of creating five simultaneously existing polities claiming to be the Roman Empire: the Latin empire, the
Holy Roman Empire
, and the three remnants of the
Byzantine Empire
, the Despotate of Epirus, the empire of Nicaea, and the empire of Trebizond.
In Asia Minor
[
edit
]
Capture of Constantinople during the
Fourth Crusade
in 1204.
The initial campaigns of the crusaders in Asia Minor resulted in the capture of most of
Bithynia
by 1205, with the defeat of the forces of
Theodore I Laskaris
at Poemanenum and Prusa. Latin successes continued, and in 1207 a truce was signed with Theodore, newly proclaimed Emperor of Nicaea. The Latins inflicted a
further defeat
on Nicaean forces at the Rhyndakos river in October 1211, and three years later the
Treaty of Nymphaeum (1214)
recognized their control of most of Bithynia and
Mysia
.
The peace was maintained until 1222, when the resurgent power of Nicaea felt sufficiently strong to challenge the Latin Empire, by that time weakened by constant warfare in its European provinces. At the
battle of Poimanenon
in 1224, the Latin army was defeated, and by the next year Emperor
Robert of Courtenay
was forced to cede all his Asian possessions to Nicaea, except for
Nicomedia
and the territories directly across from Constantinople. Nicaea turned also to the
Aegean
, capturing the islands awarded to the empire. In 1235, finally, the last Latin possessions fell to Nicaea.
In Europe
[
edit
]
Unlike in Asia, where the Latin Empire faced only an initially weak Nicaea, in Europe it was immediately confronted with a powerful enemy: the
Bulgarian
tsar
Kaloyan
. When Baldwin campaigned against the Byzantine lords of
Thrace
, they called upon Kaloyan for help. At the
Battle of Adrianople
on 14 April 1205, the Latin heavy cavalry and knights were crushed by Kaloyan's troops and
Cuman
allies, and Emperor Baldwin was captured. He was imprisoned in the Bulgarian capital
Tarnovo
until his death later in 1205. Kaloyan was murdered a couple of years later (1207) during a siege of
Thessalonica
, and the Bulgarian threat conclusively defeated with a
victory
the following year, which allowed Baldwin's successor,
Henry of Flanders
, to reclaim most of the lost territories in Thrace until 1210, when peace was concluded with the marriage of Henry to
Maria of Bulgaria
, tsar Kaloyan's daughter.
Despotate of Epirus
, one of the Greek successor states of the Byzantine Empire
At the same time, another Greek successor state, the
Despotate of Epirus
, under
Michael I Komnenos Doukas
, posed a threat to the empire's vassals in Thessalonica and Athens. Henry demanded his submission, which Michael provided, giving off his daughter to Henry's brother Eustace in the summer of 1209. This alliance allowed Henry to launch a campaign in
Macedonia
,
Thessaly
and
Central Greece
against the rebellious
Lombard
lords of Thessalonica. However, Michael's attack on the Kingdom of Thessalonica in 1210 forced him to return north to relieve the city and to force Michael back into submission.
In 1214 however, Michael died, and was succeeded by
Theodore Komnenos Doukas
, who was determined to capture Thessalonica. On 11 June 1216, while supervising repairs to the walls of Thessalonica, Henry died, and was succeeded by
Peter of Courtenay
, who himself was captured and executed by Theodore the following year. A regency was set up in Constantinople, headed by Peter's widow,
Yolanda of Flanders
, until her death in 1219. Her son
Robert of Courtenay
being absent in France, the regency passed first to
Conon de Bethune
, and after his death shortly after, to Cardinal
Giovanni Colonna
, until 1221, when Robert of Courtenay arrived in Constantinople. Distracted by the renewed war with Nicaea, and waiting in vain for assistance from
Pope Honorius III
and the King of France
Philip II
, the Latin Empire was unable to prevent the final fall of Thessalonica to Epirus in 1224. Epirote armies then conquered Thrace in 1225?26, appearing before Constantinople itself. The Latin Empire was saved for a time by the threat posed to Theodore by the Bulgarian tsar
Ivan II Asen
, and a truce was concluded in 1228.
Decline and fall
[
edit
]
After Robert of Courtenay died in 1228, a new regency under
John of Brienne
was set up. After the disastrous Epirote defeat by the Bulgarians at the
Battle of Klokotnitsa
, the Epirote threat to the Latin Empire was removed, only to be replaced by Nicaea, which started acquiring territories in Greece. Emperor
John III Doukas Vatatzes
of Nicaea concluded an alliance with Bulgaria, which in 1235 resulted in a joint campaign against the Latin Empire, and an unsuccessful
siege of Constantinople
the same year. In 1237,
Baldwin II
attained majority and took over the reins of a much-diminished state. The empire's precarious situation forced him to travel often to Western Europe seeking aid, but largely without success. In order to raise funds, he was forced to resort to desperate means, from removing the lead roofs of the
Great Palace
and selling them, to handing over his only son, Philip, to Venetian merchants as a guarantee for a loan.
By 1247, the Nicaeans had effectively surrounded the main holdings of the Emperor in the new European land system. Following the victory at the Battle of Pelagonia in 1259 Michael VIII Palaiologos of the Nicaean empire had only one obstacle left. The Theodosian walls and the Latin Forces. He had already cut of the Latins from aid from the Latin estates of Greece or the Nicaeans rivals and also a successor state to the Byzantines the Despotate of Epirus.
The first attempt to take Constantinople occurred in 1260 when a Latin knight taken prisoner in Pelagonia, whose house was in the city walls, promised to open a gate for the emperor's troops. He failed to do so, and Palaiologos launched an unsuccessful assault on Galata Instead. In preparation for another attempt, an alliance with Genoa was concluded in March 1261, and in July 1261
As the one-year truce concluded after the failed Nicaean attack was nearing its end, the general
Alexios Strategopoulos
was sent with a small advance force of 800 soldiers (most of them
Cumans
) to keep a watch on the
Bulgarians
and spy out the defences of the Latins.
When the Nicaean force reached the village of
Selymbria
, some 30 miles (48 km) west of Constantinople, they learned from some independent local farmers (
thelematarioi
) that the entire Latin garrison, as well as the
Venetian
fleet, were absent conducting a raid against the Nicaean island of
Daphnousia
. Strategopoulos initially hesitated to take advantage of the situation, since his small force might be destroyed if the Latin army returned too soon, and because he would exceed the emperor's orders, but eventually decided he could not squander such a golden opportunity to retake the city.
On the night of 24/25 July 1261, Strategopoulos and his men approached the
city walls
and hid at a
monastery
near the Gate of the Spring. Strategopoulos sent a detachment of his men, led by some of the
thelematarioi
, to make their way to the city through a secret passage. They attacked the walls from the inside, surprised the guards and opened the gate, giving the Nicaean force entry into the city. The Latins were taken completely unaware, and after a short struggle, the Nicaeans gained control of the land walls. As news of this spread across the city, the Latin inhabitants, from Emperor
Baldwin II
downwards, hurriedly rushed to the harbours of the
Golden Horn
, hoping to escape by ship. At the same time, Strategopoulos' men set fire to the Venetian buildings and warehouses along the coast to prevent them from landing there. Thanks to the timely arrival of the returning Venetian fleet, many of the Latins managed to evacuate to the still Latin-held parts of Greece, but the city was lost.
Nicaean general
Alexios Strategopoulos
found an unguarded entrance to the city, and entered it with only 800 troops, restoring the Byzantine Empire for his master,
Michael VIII Palaiologos
.
The remaining Latin states ruled territories of present-day
Greece
, some of them until the 18th century, and are known as
Latinokratia
.
Titular claimants
[
edit
]
For about a century thereafter, the heirs of
Baldwin II
continued to use the title of Emperor of Constantinople, and were seen as the overlords of the various remaining Latin states in the
Aegean
. They exercised effective authority in Greece only when actually ruling as
princes of Achaea
, from 1333?1383.
James of Baux
was the last of these Latin emperors to govern any imperial territory through Achaea. His reign lasted from 1374 until his death on 7 July 1383.
Organization and society
[
edit
]
Administration
[
edit
]
The empire was formed and administered on Western European feudal principles, incorporating some elements of the
Byzantine bureaucracy
. The emperor was assisted by a council, composed of the various barons, the Venetian
Podesta of Constantinople
and his six-member council. This council had a major voice in the governance of the realm, especially in periods of regency, when the Regent (
moderator imperii
) was dependent on their consent to rule. The podesta, likewise, was an extremely influential member, being practically independent of the emperor. He exercised authority over the Venetian quarters of Constantinople and
Pera
and the Venetian dominions within the empire, assisted by a separate set of officials. His role was more that of an ambassador and
vicegerent
of Venice than a vassal to the empire. The podesta was granted the title of Governor of One-Fourth and One-Half of the Empire of Romania, and was entitled to wearing the imperial crimson buskins like the emperor.
[18]
Economy
[
edit
]
The Latins did not trust the professional Greek
bureaucracy
, and in the immediate aftermath of the conquest completely dismantled the Greek economic administration of the areas they controlled. The result was disastrous, disrupting all forms of production and trade. Almost from its inception the Latin Empire was sending requests back to the papacy for aid. For a few years, the major commodities it exported from the surrounding region of Thrace were
wheat
and
furs
; it also profited from Constantinople's strategic location on major trade routes. While the empire showed some moderate vitality while
Henry of Flanders
was alive, after his death in 1216 there was a major deficit in leadership. By the 1230s, Constantinople ? even with its drastically reduced population ? was facing a major shortage of basic
foodstuffs
. In several senses, the only significant export on which the economy of the Latin Empire had any real basis was the sale of
relics
back to Western Europe which had been looted from Greek churches.
[
citation needed
]
For example, Emperor Baldwin II sold the relic of the
Crown of Thorns
while in France trying to raise new funds.
[
citation needed
]
Society
[
edit
]
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. You can help by
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The elite of the empire were the Frankish and Venetian lords, headed by the emperor, the barons and the lower-ranking vassals and liege lords, including many former Byzantine aristocrats. The bulk of the people were
Orthodox
Greeks
, still divided according to the Byzantine system in income classes based on land ownership.
Church
[
edit
]
As with all Latin states, the Orthodox hierarchy was replaced by
Roman Catholic
prelates
, but not suppressed.
[
citation needed
]
An expansive Catholic hierarchy was established, under the dual supervision of the Latin
archbishop
of Constantinople and the
Papal legate
, until the two offices were merged in 1231. Western Catholic religious orders, such as the
Cistercians
, the
Dominicans
and the
Franciscans
were established in the empire. The Orthodox clergy retained its rites and customs, including its right to marriage, but was demoted to a subordinate position, subject to the local Latin bishops.
[
citation needed
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The Byzantines retook Constantinople under Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos
in 1261. Latin possessions remained in Greece until the
Ottoman Empire
annexed the
Duchy of the Archipelago
in 1579, and the various surviving Latin principalities continued to recognize a lineage of
Latin Emperors
until the death of
James of Baux
in 1383.
- ^
Arms used by
Philip of Courtenay
, who held the title of Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1273 to 1283, even though Constantinople had been reinstated to the Byzantines in 1261. This design was sometimes presented as the "arms of the emperors of Constantinople" in early modern heraldry.
[1]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Hubert de Vries,
Byzantium: Arms and Emblems (hubert-herald.nl)
(2011).
- ^
a
b
c
d
Matanov, Hristo (2014).
В търсене на средновековното време. Неравният път на българите (VII?XV в.) (in Bulgarian)
. IK Gutenberg.
ISBN
9786191760183
.
- ^
Pirenne, Henri (1947).
Histotia Economica y Social de la Edad Media
(in Spanish) (4th ed.). Mexico: Salvador Echavarria. p. 39.
- ^
Marin, Serban (1 January 2004).
"Dominus quartae partis et dimidiae totius Imperii Romaniae. The Fourth Crusade and the Dogal Title in the Venetian Chronicles' Representation"
.
Quaderni della Casa Romena 3 (2004), pp. 119?150
.
- ^
Loud, G.A.
"Contemporary Documents concerning the Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople"
(PDF)
.
Leeds Medieval Studies
. Leeds University
. Retrieved
24 November
2023
.
- ^
Jacobi, David (1999), "The Latin empire of Constantinople and the Frankish states in Greece", in Abulafia, David (ed.),
The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. V: c. 1198?c. 1300
, Cambridge University Press, pp. 525?542,
ISBN
0-521-36289-X
- ^
a
b
c
Tricht, Filip Van (2011).
The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204?1228)
. Brill. pp. 61?82.
ISBN
9789004203235
.
- ^
Zarkadas, Evangelos (2022).
The Effects of Regional Separatism on Late Roman Identity in Fourteenth-Century Byzantium
. Maine: University of Maine. p. 62.
- ^
On the long history of "Romania" as a territorial name for the Roman and (later) Byzantine empires, see R.L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". In:
Speculum
, 23 (1948), pp. 1?34.
- ^
Fossier, Robert; Sondheimer, Janet (1997). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-26644-4
. p. 104
- ^
Hazlitt, William Carew. The Venetian Republic: Its Rise, Its Growth, and Its Fall 421?1797. Vol. 1, A. And C. Black, 1900.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Angold, Michael
(2011). "The Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1204?1261: Marriage Strategies".
Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204
. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 47?68.
ISBN
9781409410980
.
- Choniates, Nicetas
(1984).
O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniat?s
. Translated by Harry J. Magoulias. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
ISBN
0-8143-1764-2
.
- Fine, John V. A. Jr.
(1994) [1987].
The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest
. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
ISBN
0-472-08260-4
.
- Geanakoplos, Deno John
(1953).
"Greco-Latin Relations on the Eve of the Byzantine Restoration: The Battle of Pelagonia?1259"
.
Dumbarton Oaks Papers
.
7
: 99?141.
doi
:
10.2307/1291057
.
JSTOR
1291057
.
- Geanakoplos, Deno John
(1959).
Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258?1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
OCLC
1011763434
.
- Hendrickx, Benjamin (2015).
"Les duches de l'Empire latin de Constantinople apres 1204: origine, structures et statuts"
[The Duchies of the Latin Empire of Constantinople after 1204. Origin, Structures and Statutes].
Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire
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93
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:
10.3406/rbph.2015.8837
.
- Jacoby, David (1999). "The Latin Empire of Constantinople and the Frankish States in Greece". In
Abulafia, David
(ed.).
The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 5, c.1198?c.1300
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 525?542.
ISBN
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.
- Miller, William
(1908).
The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece (1204?1566)
. London: John Murray.
OCLC
563022439
.
- Nicol, Donald M.
(1993).
The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261?1453
(Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
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.
- Ostrogorsky, George
(1956).
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. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
- Perry, Guy (2013).
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. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
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.
- Setton, Kenneth M.
(1976).
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. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society.
ISBN
0-87169-114-0
.
- Wolff, Robert Lee (1969) [1962].
"The Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1204?1261"
. In
Setton, Kenneth M.
;
Wolff, Robert Lee
; Hazard, Harry W. (eds.).
A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189?1311
(Second ed.). Madison, Milwaukee, and London: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 186?233.
ISBN
0-299-04844-6
.
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