Chemical element, symbol La and atomic number 57
Lanthanum,
57
La
|
|
Pronunciation
|
(
LAN
-th?-n?m
)
|
---|
Appearance
| silvery white
|
---|
|
|
| |
---|
|
|
|
Atomic number
(
Z
)
| 57
|
---|
Group
| f-block groups
(no number)
|
---|
Period
| period 6
|
---|
Block
|
f-block
|
---|
Electron configuration
| [
Xe
] 5d
1
6s
2
|
---|
Electrons per shell
| 2, 8, 18, 18, 9, 2
|
---|
|
Phase
at
STP
| solid
|
---|
Melting point
| 1193
K
(920 °C, 1688 °F)
|
---|
Boiling point
| 3737 K (3464 °C, 6267 °F)
|
---|
Density
(at 20° C)
| 6.145 g/cm
3
[3]
|
---|
when liquid (at
m.p.
)
| 5.94 g/cm
3
|
---|
Heat of fusion
| 6.20
kJ/mol
|
---|
Heat of vaporization
| 400 kJ/mol
|
---|
Molar heat capacity
| 27.11 J/(mol·K)
|
---|
Vapor pressure
(extrapolated)
P
(Pa)
|
1
|
10
|
100
|
1 k
|
10 k
|
100 k
|
at
T
(K)
|
2005
|
2208
|
2458
|
2772
|
3178
|
3726
|
|
|
Oxidation states
| 0,
[4]
+1,
[5]
+2,
+3
(a strongly
basic
oxide)
|
---|
Electronegativity
| Pauling scale: 1.10
|
---|
Ionization energies
| - 1st: 538.1 kJ/mol
- 2nd: 1067 kJ/mol
- 3rd: 1850.3 kJ/mol
-
|
---|
Atomic radius
| empirical: 187
pm
|
---|
Covalent radius
| 207±8 pm
|
---|
Spectral lines
of lanthanum
|
|
Natural occurrence
| primordial
|
---|
Crystal structure
| α form:
double hexagonal close-packed
(dhcp) (
hP4
)
|
---|
Lattice constants
| a
= 0.37742 nm
c
= 1.2171 nm (at 20 °C)
[3]
|
---|
Thermal expansion
| 5.1
×
10
?6
/K (at 20 °C)
[3]
[a]
|
---|
Thermal conductivity
| 13.4 W/(m?K)
|
---|
Electrical resistivity
| α, poly: 615 nΩ?m (at
r.t.
)
|
---|
Magnetic ordering
| paramagnetic
[6]
|
---|
Molar magnetic susceptibility
| +118.0
×
10
?6
cm
3
/mol (298 K)
[7]
|
---|
Young's modulus
| α form: 36.6 GPa
|
---|
Shear modulus
| α form: 14.3 GPa
|
---|
Bulk modulus
| α form: 27.9 GPa
|
---|
Speed of sound
thin rod
| 2475 m/s (at 20 °C)
|
---|
Poisson ratio
| α form: 0.280
|
---|
Mohs hardness
| 2.5
|
---|
Vickers hardness
| 360?1750 MPa
|
---|
Brinell hardness
| 350?400 MPa
|
---|
CAS Number
| 7439-91-0
|
---|
|
Discovery
| Carl Gustaf Mosander
(1838)
|
---|
|
|
|
|
Category: Lanthanum
|
references
|
Lanthanum
is a
chemical element
; it has
symbol
La
and
atomic number
57. It is a
soft
,
ductile
, silvery-white
metal
that tarnishes slowly when exposed to air. It is the eponym of the
lanthanide
series, a group of 15 similar elements between lanthanum and
lutetium
in the
periodic table
, of which lanthanum is the first and the prototype. Lanthanum is traditionally counted among the
rare earth elements
. Like most other rare earth elements, its usual
oxidation state
is +3, although some compounds are known with an oxidation state of +2. Lanthanum has no biological role in humans but is essential to some bacteria. It is not particularly toxic to humans but does show some antimicrobial activity.
Lanthanum usually occurs together with
cerium
and the other rare earth elements. Lanthanum was first found by the Swedish chemist
Carl Gustaf Mosander
in 1839 as an impurity in
cerium nitrate
? hence the name
lanthanum
, from the
ancient Greek
λανθ?νειν
(
lanthanein
), meaning 'to lie hidden'. Although it is classified as a rare earth element, lanthanum is the 28th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, almost three times as abundant as
lead
. In minerals such as
monazite
and
bastnasite
, lanthanum composes about a quarter of the lanthanide content.
[9]
It is extracted from those minerals by a process of such complexity that pure lanthanum metal was not isolated until 1923.
Lanthanum compounds have numerous applications as
catalysts
, additives in glass, carbon arc lamps for studio lights and projectors, ignition elements in
lighters
and torches,
electron cathodes
,
scintillators
,
gas tungsten arc welding
electrodes, and other things.
Lanthanum carbonate
is used as a
phosphate binder
in cases of
high levels of phosphate in the blood
seen with
kidney failure
.
Characteristics
[
edit
]
Physical
[
edit
]
Lanthanum is the first element and prototype of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears to the right of the
alkaline earth metal
barium
and to the left of the lanthanide cerium. Lanthanum is generally considered the first of the f-block elements by authors writing on the subject.
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
The 57 electrons of a lanthanum atom are arranged in the
configuration
[Xe]5d
1
6s
2
, with three valence electrons outside the noble gas core. In chemical reactions, lanthanum almost always gives up these three valence electrons from the 5d and 6s
subshells
to form the +3 oxidation state, achieving the stable configuration of the preceding noble gas
xenon
.
[15]
Some lanthanum(II) compounds are also known, but they are usually much less stable.
[16]
[17]
Lanthanum monoxide (LaO) produces strong absorption bands in some
stellar spectra
.
[18]
Among the lanthanides, lanthanum is exceptional as it has no 4f electrons as a single gas-phase atom. Thus it is only very weakly
paramagnetic
, unlike the strongly paramagnetic later lanthanides (with the exceptions of the last two,
ytterbium
and
lutetium
, where the 4f shell is completely full).
[19]
However, the 4f shell of lanthanum can become partially occupied in chemical environments and participate in chemical bonding.
[20]
[21]
For example, the melting points of the trivalent lanthanides (all but
europium
and ytterbium) are related to the extent of hybridisation of the 6s, 5d, and 4f electrons (lowering with increasing 4f involvement),
[22]
and lanthanum has the second-lowest melting point among them: 920 °C. (Europium and ytterbium have lower melting points because they delocalise about two electrons per atom rather than three.)
[23]
This chemical availability of f orbitals justifies lanthanum's placement in the f-block despite its anomalous ground-state configuration
[24]
[25]
(which is merely the result of strong interelectronic repulsion making it less profitable to occupy the 4f shell, as it is small and close to the core electrons).
[26]
The lanthanides become harder as the series is traversed: as expected, lanthanum is a soft metal. Lanthanum has a relatively high
resistivity
of 615 nΩm at room temperature; in comparison, the value for the good conductor aluminium is only 26.50 nΩm.
[27]
[28]
Lanthanum is the least volatile of the lanthanides.
[29]
Like most of the lanthanides, lanthanum has a
hexagonal crystal structure
at room temperature (
α
-La). At 310 °C, lanthanum changes to a
face-centered cubic
structure (
β
-La), and at 865 °C, it changes to a
body-centered cubic
structure (
γ
-La).
[28]
Chemical
[
edit
]
As expected from
periodic trends
, lanthanum has the largest
atomic radius
of the lanthanides. Hence, it is the most reactive among them, tarnishing quite rapidly in air, turning completely dark after several hours and can readily burn to form
lanthanum(III) oxide
,
La
2
O
3
, which is almost as
basic
as
calcium oxide
.
[30]
A centimeter-sized sample of lanthanum will corrode completely in a year as its oxide
spalls
off like iron
rust
, instead of forming a protective oxide coating like
aluminium
, scandium, yttrium, and lutetium.
[31]
Lanthanum reacts with the
halogens
at room temperature to form the trihalides, and upon warming will form
binary compounds
with the nonmetals nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon and arsenic.
[15]
[16]
Lanthanum reacts slowly with water to form
lanthanum(III) hydroxide
,
La(OH)
3
.
[32]
In dilute
sulfuric acid
, lanthanum readily forms the aquated tripositive ion
[La(H
2
O)
9
]
3+
: This is colorless in aqueous solution since
La
3+
has no d or f electrons.
[32]
Lanthanum is the strongest and
hardest
base among the
rare earth elements
, which is again expected from its being the largest of them.
[33]
Some lanthanum(II) compounds are also known, but they are much less stable.
[16]
Therefore, in officially naming compounds of lanthanum its oxidation number always is to be mentioned.
Isotopes
[
edit
]
Naturally occurring lanthanum is made up of two isotopes, the stable
139
La
and the
primordial long-lived radioisotope
138
La
.
139
La
is by far the most abundant, making up 99.910% of natural lanthanum: it is produced in the
s-process
(slow
neutron
capture, which occurs in low- to medium-mass stars) and the
r-process
(rapid neutron capture, which occurs in core-collapse
supernovae
). It is the only stable isotope of lanthanum.
[34]
The very rare isotope
138
La
is one of the few primordial
odd?odd nuclei
, with a long half-life of
1.05×10
11
years.
It is one of the proton-rich
p-nuclei
which cannot be produced in the
s-
or
r-processes
.
138
La
, along with the even rarer
180
Ta
, is produced in the ν-process, where
neutrinos
interact with stable nuclei.
[35]
All other lanthanum isotopes are
synthetic
: With the exception of
137
La
with a half-life of about 60,000 years, all of them have half-lives less than two days, and most have half-lives less than a minute. The isotopes
139
La
and
140
La
occur as
fission products
of uranium.
[34]
Compounds
[
edit
]
Lanthanum oxide
is a white solid that can be prepared by direct reaction of its constituent elements. Due to the large size of the
La
3+
ion,
La
2
O
3
adopts a hexagonal 7-coordinate structure that changes to the 6-coordinate structure of
scandium oxide
(
Sc
2
O
3
) and
yttrium oxide
(
Y
2
O
3
) at high temperature. When it reacts with water,
lanthanum hydroxide
is formed:
[36]
a lot of heat is evolved in the reaction and a hissing sound is heard. Lanthanum hydroxide will react with atmospheric
carbon dioxide
to form the basic carbonate.
[37]
Lanthanum fluoride
is insoluble in water and can be used as a
qualitative
test for the presence of
La
3+
. The heavier halides are all very soluble
deliquescent
compounds. The anhydrous halides are produced by direct reaction of their elements, as heating the hydrates causes hydrolysis: for example, heating hydrated
LaCl
3
produces
LaOCl
.
[37]
Lanthanum reacts exothermically with hydrogen to produce the dihydride
LaH
2
, a black,
pyrophoric
, brittle, conducting compound with the
calcium fluoride
structure.
[38]
This is a non-stoichiometric compound, and further absorption of hydrogen is possible, with a concomitant loss of electrical conductivity, until the more salt-like
LaH
3
is reached. Like
LaI
2
and
LaI
,
LaH
2
is probably an
electride
compound.
[37]
Due to the large ionic radius and great electropositivity of
La
3+
, there is not much covalent contribution to its bonding and hence it has a limited
coordination chemistry
, like yttrium and the other lanthanides.
[39]
Lanthanum oxalate
does not dissolve very much in alkali-metal oxalate solutions, and
[La(acac)
3
(H
2
O)
2
]
decomposes around 500 °C. Oxygen is the most common
donor atom
in lanthanum complexes, which are mostly ionic and often have high coordination numbers over
6 : 8
is the most characteristic, forming
square antiprismatic
and
dodecadeltahedral
structures. These high-coordinate species, reaching up to coordination number 12 with the use of
chelating ligands
such as in
La
2
(SO
4
)
3
· 9(H
2
O)
, often have a low degree of symmetry because of stereo-chemical factors.
[39]
Lanthanum chemistry tends not to involve
π
-bonding
due to the electron configuration of the element: thus its organometallic chemistry is quite limited. The best characterized organolanthanum compounds are the
cyclopentadienyl complex
La(C
5
H
5
)
3
, which is produced by reacting anhydrous
LaCl
3
with
NaC
5
H
5
in
tetrahydrofuran
, and its methyl-substituted derivatives.
[40]
History
[
edit
]
In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist
Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at
Bastnas
, later named
cerite
. Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old
Wilhelm Hisinger
, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to
Carl Scheele
, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with
Jons Jacob Berzelius
and isolated a new oxide which they named
ceria
after the
dwarf planet
Ceres
, which had been discovered two years earlier.
[41]
Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by
Martin Heinrich Klaproth
.
[42]
Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist
Carl Gustaf Mosander
, who lived in the same house as Berzelius and studied under him: he separated out two other oxides which he named
lanthana
and
didymia
.
[43]
[44]
He partially decomposed a sample of
cerium nitrate
by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute
nitric acid
.
[b]
[46]
That same year,
Axel Erdmann
, a student also at the Karolinska Institute, discovered lanthanum in a new mineral from Laven island located in a Norwegian fjord.
Finally, Mosander explained his delay, saying that he had extracted a second element from cerium, and this he called didymium. Although he did not realise it, didymium too was a mixture, and in 1885 it was separated into praseodymium and neodymium.
Since lanthanum's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium, and occurred along with it in its salts, he named it from the
Ancient Greek
λανθ?νειν
[
lanthanein
] (lit.
to lie hidden
).
[42]
Relatively pure lanthanum metal was first isolated in 1923.
[16]
Occurrence and production
[
edit
]
Lanthanum makes up 39 mg/kg of the Earth's crust,
[47]
[48]
behind
neodymium
at 41.5 mg/kg and cerium at 66.5 mg/kg. Despite being among the so-called "rare earth metals", lanthanum is thus not rare at all, but it is historically so-named because it is rarer than "common earths" such as lime and magnesia, and at the time it was recognized only a few deposits were known. Lanthanum is also ruefully considered a 'rare earth' metal because the process to mine it is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive.
[16]
Lanthanum is rarely the dominant lanthanide found in the rare earth minerals, and in their chemical formulae it is usually preceded by cerium. Rare examples of La-dominant minerals are monazite-(La) and lanthanite-(La).
[49]
The
La
3+
ion is similarly sized to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those up to
samarium
and
europium
) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in
phosphate
,
silicate
and
carbonate
minerals, such as
monazite
(
M
III
PO
4
) and
bastnasite
(
M
III
CO
3
F
), where M refers to all the rare earth metals except scandium and the radioactive
promethium
(mostly Ce, La, and Y).
[50]
Bastnasite is usually lacking in
thorium
and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide,
hydrogen fluoride
, and
silicon tetrafluoride
: the product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.
[51]
The procedure for monazite, which usually contains all the rare earths as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with
sodium hydroxide
to pH 3?4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that, the solution is treated with
ammonium oxalate
to convert rare earths to their insoluble
oxalates
. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components,
cerium
, whose oxide is insoluble in
HNO
3
. Lanthanum is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization. This salt is relatively less soluble than other rare earth double salts and therefore stays in the residue.
[16]
Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain
228
Ra
, the daughter of
232
Th
, which is a strong gamma emitter. Lanthanum is relatively easy to extract as it has only one neighbouring lanthanide, cerium, which can be removed by making use of its ability to be oxidised to the +4 state; thereafter, lanthanum may be separated out by the historical method of
fractional crystallization
of
La(NO
3
)
3
· 2 NH
4
NO
3
· 4 H
2
O
, or by
ion-exchange
techniques when higher purity is desired.
[51]
Lanthanum metal is obtained from its oxide by heating it with
ammonium chloride
or fluoride and hydrofluoric acid at 300?400 °C to produce the chloride or fluoride:
[16]
- La
2
O
3
+
6 NH
4
Cl
→
2 LaCl
3
+
6 NH
3
+
3 H
2
O
This is followed by reduction with alkali or alkaline earth metals in vacuum or argon atmosphere:
[16]
- LaCl
3
+
3 Li
→
La
+
3 LiCl
Also, pure lanthanum can be produced by electrolysis of molten mixture of anhydrous
LaCl
3
and
NaCl
or
KCl
at elevated temperatures.
[16]
Applications
[
edit
]
The first historical application of lanthanum was in gas lantern
mantles
.
Carl Auer von Welsbach
used a mixture of
lanthanum oxide
and
zirconium oxide
, which he called
Actinophor
and patented in 1886. The original mantles gave a green-tinted light and were not very successful, and his first company, which established a factory in
Atzgersdorf
in 1887, failed in 1889.
[52]
Modern uses of lanthanum include:
- One material used for anodic material of
nickel?metal hydride batteries
is
La(Ni
3.6
Mn
0.4
Al
0.3
Co
0.7
)
. Due to high cost to extract the other lanthanides, a
mischmetal
with more than 50% of lanthanum is used instead of pure lanthanum. The compound is an
intermetallic
component of the
AB
5
type.
[53]
[54]
NiMH
batteries can be found in many models of the
Toyota Prius
sold in the US. These larger nickel-metal hydride batteries require massive quantities of lanthanum for the production. The 2008 Toyota Prius NiMH battery requires 10 to 15 kilograms (22 to 33 lb) of lanthanum. As engineers push the technology to increase fuel efficiency, twice that amount of lanthanum could be required per vehicle.
[55]
[56]
[57]
- Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum. These alloys are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process. Heat energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems.
[28]
[58]
- Mischmetal
, a
pyrophoric
alloy used in lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum.
[59]
- Lanthanum oxide
and the
boride
are used in electronic
vacuum tubes
as
hot cathode
materials with strong emissivity of
electrons
. Crystals of
LaB
6
are used in high-brightness, extended-life, thermionic electron emission sources for
electron microscopes
and
Hall-effect thrusters
.
[60]
- Lanthanum trifluoride
(
LaF
3
) is an essential component of a heavy fluoride glass named
ZBLAN
. This glass has superior transmittance in the infrared range and is therefore used for fiber-optical communication systems.
[61]
- Cerium-doped
lanthanum bromide
and
lanthanum chloride
are the recent inorganic
scintillators
, which have a combination of high light yield, best energy resolution, and fast response. Their high yield converts into superior energy resolution; moreover, the light output is very stable and quite high over a very wide range of temperatures, making it particularly attractive for high-temperature applications. These scintillators are already widely used commercially in detectors of
neutrons
or
gamma rays
.
[62]
- Carbon arc lamps
use a mixture of rare earth elements to improve the light quality. This application, especially by the
motion picture
industry for studio lighting and projection, consumed about 25% of the rare-earth compounds produced until the phase out of carbon arc lamps.
[28]
[63]
- Lanthanum(III) oxide
(
La
2
O
3
) improves the alkali resistance of
glass
and is used in making special optical glasses, such as infrared-absorbing glass, as well as
camera
and
telescope
lenses
, because of the high
refractive index
and low dispersion of rare-earth glasses.
[28]
Lanthanum oxide is also used as a grain-growth additive during the liquid-phase
sintering
of
silicon nitride
and
zirconium diboride
.
[64]
- Small amounts of lanthanum added to
steel
improves its
malleability
, resistance to impact, and
ductility
, whereas addition of lanthanum to
molybdenum
decreases its hardness and sensitivity to temperature variations.
[28]
- Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the phosphates that feed algae.
[65]
- Lanthanum oxide additive to tungsten is used in
gas tungsten arc welding
electrodes, as a substitute for
radioactive
thorium.
[66]
[67]
- Various compounds of lanthanum and other rare-earth elements (oxides, chlorides,
triflates
, etc.) are components of various catalysis, such as
petroleum cracking
catalysts
.
[68]
- Lanthanum-barium
radiometric dating
is used to estimate age of rocks and ores, though the technique has limited popularity.
[69]
- Lanthanum carbonate
was approved as a medication (Fosrenol,
Shire Pharmaceuticals
) to absorb excess
phosphate
in cases of
hyperphosphatemia
seen in
end-stage kidney disease
.
[70]
- Lanthanum fluoride is used in phosphor lamp coatings. Mixed with europium fluoride, it is also applied in the crystal membrane of
fluoride ion-selective electrodes
.
[16]
- Like
horseradish peroxidase
, lanthanum is used as an electron-dense tracer in
molecular biology
.
[71]
- Lanthanum-modified bentonite (or
phoslock
) is used to remove phosphates from water in lake treatments.
[72]
- Lanthanum telluride (
La
3
Te
4
) is considered to be applied in the field of radioisotope power system (nuclear power plant) due to its significant conversion capabilities. The transmuted elements and isotopes in the segment will not react with the material itself, thus presenting no harm to the safety of the power plant. Though iodine, which can be generated during transmutation, is suspected to react with
La
3
Te
4
segment, the quantity of iodine is small enough to pose no threat to the power system.
[73]
Biological role
[
edit
]
Lanthanum has no known biological role in humans. The element is very poorly absorbed after oral administration and when injected its elimination is very slow.
Lanthanum carbonate
(Fosrenol) was approved as a
phosphate binder
to absorb excess phosphate in cases of
end stage renal disease
.
[70]
While lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels, its specificity for the
GABA
receptor is unique among trivalent cations. Lanthanum acts at the same modulatory site on the
GABA receptor
as
zinc
, a known negative
allosteric
modulator. The lanthanum cation
La
3+
is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant GABA receptors, increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit configuration dependent manner.
[74]
Lanthanum is an essential cofactor for the methanol dehydrogenase of the
methanotrophic
bacterium
Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum
SolV, although the great chemical similarity of the lanthanides means that it may be substituted with cerium, praseodymium, or neodymium without ill effects, and with the smaller samarium, europium, or gadolinium giving no side effects other than slower growth.
[75]
Precautions
[
edit
]
Chemical compound
Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity and should be handled with care. The injection of lanthanum solutions produces
hyperglycemia
, low blood pressure, degeneration of the
spleen
and
hepatic
alterations.
[
citation needed
]
The application in carbon arc light led to the exposure of people to rare earth element oxides and fluorides, which sometimes led to
pneumoconiosis
.
[77]
[78]
As the
La
3+
ion is similar in size to the
Ca
2+
ion, it is sometimes used as an easily traced substitute for the latter in medical studies.
[79]
Lanthanum, like the other lanthanides, is known to affect human metabolism, lowering cholesterol levels, blood pressure, appetite, and risk of blood coagulation. When injected into the brain, it acts as a painkiller, similarly to
morphine
and other opiates, though the mechanism behind this is still unknown.
[79]
Lanthanum meant for ingestion, typically as a chewable tablet or oral powder, can interfere with gastrointestinal (GI) imaging by creating opacities throughout the GI tract; if chewable tablets are swallowed whole, they will dissolve but present initially as coin-shaped opacities in the stomach, potentially confused with ingested metal objects such as coins or batteries.
[80]
Prices
[
edit
]
The price for a (metric) ton [1000 kg] of
Lanthanum oxide 99% (FOB China in USD/Mt)
is given by the Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals (IREESM) as below $2,000 for most of the period from early 2001 to September 2010 (at $10,000 in the short term in 2008); it rose steeply to $140,000 in mid-2011 and fell back just as rapidly to $38,000 by early 2012.
[81]
The average price for the last six months (April?September 2022) is given by the IREESM as follows:
Lanthanum Oxide - 99.9%min FOB China - 1308 EUR/mt
and for
Lanthanum Metal - 99%min FOB China - 3706 EUR/mt
.
[82]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The thermal expansion of α-La is
anisotropic
: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are α
a
=
2.9
×
10
?6
/K, α
c
=
9.5
×
10
?6
/K, and α
average
= α
V
/3 =
5.1
×
10
?6
/K.
[3]
- ^
From
Berzelius (1839a)
, p. 356:
- "L'oxide de cerium, extrait de la cerite par la procede ordinaire, contient a peu pres les deux cinquiemes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau metal qui ne change que peu les proprietes du cerium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire cache. Cette raison a engage M. Mosander a donner au nouveau metal le nom de
Lantane
."
- [ The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name
Lantane
. ]
[45]
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[
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]
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- ^
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8
?
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Bibliography
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Callow, R.J. (1967).
The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium
. Pergamon Press.
- Gupta, C.K.; Krishnamurthy, N. (2005).
Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths
. CRC Press.
- Pascal, P., ed. (1959).
Nouveau Traite de Chimie Minerale
[
New Treatise on Mineral Chemistry
] (in French). Vol. VII Scandium, Yttrium, Elements des Terres Rares, Actinium. Masson & Cie.
- Vickery, R.C. (1953).
Chemistry of the Lanthanons
. Butterworths.