Language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with another language
A
language isolate
is a
language
that has no demonstrable
genetic relationship
with another language.
[1]
Basque
in Europe,
Ainu
[1]
in Asia,
Sandawe
in Africa,
Haida
and
Zuni
in North America,
Kanoe
in
South America
, and
Tiwi
in Australia are all examples of language isolates. The exact number of language isolates is yet unknown due to insufficient data on several languages.
[2]
One explanation for the existence of language isolates is that they might be the last remaining branch of a larger language family. The language possibly had relatives in the past that have since disappeared without being documented. Another explanation for language isolates is that they developed in isolation from other languages. This explanation mostly applies to
sign languages
that have arisen independently of other spoken or signed languages.
[1]
[3]
Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families if some of their dialects are judged to be sufficiently different from the standard to be seen as different languages. Examples include
Japanese
and
Georgian
:
Japanese
is now part of the
Japonic language family
with the
Ryukyuan languages
, and
Georgian
is the main language in the
Kartvelian language
family. There is a difference between language isolates and
unclassified languages
, but they can be difficult to differentiate when it comes to classifying
extinct languages
.
[1]
If such efforts eventually do prove fruitful, a language previously considered an isolate may no longer be considered one, as happened with the
Yanyuwa language
of northern
Australia
, which has been placed in the
Pama?Nyungan
family.
[4]
Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a language is an isolate.
Genetic relationships
[
edit
]
A genetic relationship is when two different languages are descended from a common ancestral language.
[5]
This is what makes up a
language family
, which is a set of languages for which sufficient evidence exists to demonstrate that they descend from a single ancestral language and are therefore genetically related.
[1]
For example,
English
is related to other
Indo-European languages
and
Mandarin Chinese
is related to other
Sino-Tibetan languages
. By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes a family of its own.
[5]
In some situations, a language with no ancestor can arise. This frequently happens with
sign languages
?most famously in the case of
Nicaraguan Sign Language
, where deaf children with no language were placed together and developed a new language.
[6]
Extinct isolates
[
edit
]
Caution is required when speaking of
extinct languages
as language isolates. Despite their great age,
Sumerian
and
Elamite
can be safely classified as isolates, as the languages are well enough documented that, if modern relatives existed, they would be recognizably related.
[7]
A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be related to other languages once enough material is recovered, but this is unlikely for extinct languages whose written records have not been preserved.
[1]
Many extinct languages are very poorly attested, which may lead to them being considered
unclassified languages
instead of language isolates. This occurs when linguists do not have enough information on a language to classify it as either a language isolate or as a part of another language family.
[1]
Isolates v. unclassified languages
[
edit
]
Unclassified languages
are different from language isolates in that they have no demonstrable genetic relationships to other languages due to a lack of sufficient data. In order to be considered a language isolate, a language needs to have sufficient data for comparisons with other languages through methods of
historical-comparative linguistics
to show that it does not have any genetic relationships.
[1]
Many extinct languages and living languages today are very poorly attested, and the fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of our poor knowledge of them.
Hattic
,
Gutian
, and
Kassite
are all considered unclassified languages, but their status is disputed by a minority of linguists.
[8]
Many extinct languages of the
Americas
such as
Cayuse
and
Majena
may likewise have been isolates.
[9]
Several unclassified languages could also be language isolates, but linguists cannot be sure of this without sufficient evidence.
[1]
Sign language isolates
[
edit
]
A number of
sign languages
have arisen independently, without any ancestral language, and thus are language isolates. The most famous of these is the
Nicaraguan Sign Language
, a well documented case of what has happened in schools for the deaf in many countries.
[6]
In Tanzania, for example, there are seven schools for the deaf, each with its own
sign language
with no known connection to any other language.
[10]
Sign languages have also developed outside schools, in communities with high incidences of deafness, such as
Kata Kolok
in Bali, and half a dozen sign languages of the hill tribes in Thailand including the
Ban Khor Sign Language
.
[11]
[12]
These and more are all presumed isolates or small local families, because many deaf communities are made up of people whose hearing parents do not use sign language, and have manifestly, as shown by the language itself, not borrowed their sign language from other deaf communities during the recorded history of these languages.
[11]
Reclassification
[
edit
]
Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families because their genetic relationship to other languages has been established. This happened with
Japanese
and
Ryukyuan languages
,
Korean
and
Koreanic languages
,
Atakapa
and
Akokisa languages
,
Tol and Jicaque of El Palmar
languages, and the
Xincan Guatemala
language family in which linguists have grouped the
Chiquimulilla
,
Guazacapan
,
Jumaytepeque
, and
Yupiltepeque
languages.
[1]
List of language isolates by continent
[
edit
]
Below is a list of known language isolates, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relations to other languages or language families.
The status column indicates the
degree of endangerment
of the language, according to the definitions of the UNESCO
Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
.
[13]
"Vibrant" languages are those in full use by speakers of every generation, with consistent native acquisition by children. "Vulnerable" languages have a similarly wide base of native speakers, but a restricted use and the long-term risk of
language shift
. "Endangered" languages are either acquired irregularly or spoken only by older generations. "Moribund" languages have only a few remaining native speakers, with no new acquisition, highly restricted use, and near-universal multilingualism. "Extinct" languages have no native speakers, but are sufficiently documented to be classified as isolates.
Africa
[
edit
]
With few exceptions, all of Africa's languages have been gathered into four major phyla:
Afroasiatic
,
Niger?Congo
,
Nilo-Saharan
and
Khoisan
.
[14]
However, the genetic unity of some language families, like
Nilo-Saharan
,
[15]
[16]
is questionable, and so there may be many more language families and isolates than currently accepted. Data for several African languages, like
Kwisi
, are not sufficient for classification. In addition,
Jalaa
,
Shabo
,
Laal
,
Kujarge
, and a few other languages within
Nilo-Saharan
and
Afroasiatic
-speaking areas may turn out to be isolates upon further investigation.
Defaka
and
Ega
are highly divergent languages located within
Niger?Congo
-speaking areas, and may also possibly be language isolates.
[17]
Language
|
Speakers
|
Status
|
Countries
|
Comments
|
Bangime
|
2,000
|
Vibrant
|
Mali
|
Spoken in the
Bandiagara Escarpment
. Used as an
anti-language
.
[18]
|
Hadza
|
1,000
|
Vulnerable
|
Tanzania
|
Spoken on the southern shore of
Lake Eyasi
in the southwest of
Arusha Region
. Once listed as an outlier among the
Khoisan languages
.
[19]
Language use is vigorous, though there are fewer than 1,000 speakers.
[20]
|
Jalaa
|
Extinct
|
Nigeria
|
Strongly influenced by
Dikaka
, but most vocabulary is very unusual.
[21]
|
Laal
|
750
|
Moribund
|
Chad
|
Spoken in three villages along the
Chari River
in
Moyen-Chari Region
. Poorly known. Also known as Gori. Possibly a distinct branch of
Niger?Congo
,
Chadic
of the
Afroasiatic languages
, or mixed.
[
citation needed
]
|
Sandawe
|
60,000
|
Vibrant
|
Tanzania
|
Spoken in the northwest of
Dodoma Region
. Tentatively linked to the
Khoe languages
.
[19]
|
Shabo
|
400
|
Endangered
|
Ethiopia
|
Spoken in
Anderaccha
, Gecha, and Kaabo of the
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region
. Linked to the
Gumuz
and
Koman
families in the proposed
Komuz
branch of the
Nilo-Saharan languages
.
[22]
|
Asia
[
edit
]
Language
|
Speakers
|
Status
|
Countries
|
Comments
|
Burushaski
|
300,000
[23]
|
Vulnerable
|
Pakistan
|
Spoken in the Yasin Valley and
Hunza Valley
of
Gilgit-Baltistan
. Linked to
Caucasian languages
,
[24]
Indo-European
,
[25]
[26]
and
Na-Dene languages
[27]
[28]
in various proposals.
|
Elamite
|
Extinct
|
Iran
|
Formerly spoken in
Elam
, along the northeast coast of the
Persian Gulf
. Attested from around 2800 BC to 300 BC.
[29]
Some propose a relationship to the
Dravidian languages
(see
Elamo-Dravidian
), but this is not well-supported.
[30]
|
Kusunda
|
At least 1 (2023)
[31]
|
Moribund
|
Nepal
|
Spoken in
Gandaki Province
. The recent discovery of a few speakers shows that it is not demonstrably related to anything else.
[32]
|
Puroik
[33]
|
20,000
|
Vulnerable
|
India
|
|
Nihali
|
2,000
|
Endangered
|
India
|
Also known as Nahali. Spoken in northeastern
Maharashtra
and southwestern
Madhya Pradesh
, along the
Tapti River
. Strong lexical
Munda
influence from
Korku
.
[34]
Used as
anti-language
by speakers.
[35]
|
Nivkh
|
200
|
Moribund
|
Russia
|
Also known as Gilyak. Spoken in the lower
Amur River
basin and in the northern part of
Sakhalin
. Dialects sometimes considered two languages.
[36]
Has been linked to
Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
.
[37]
|
Sumerian
|
Extinct
|
Iraq
|
Spoken in Mesopotamia until around 1800 BC, but used as a
classical language
until 100 AD.
[38]
Long-extinct but well-attested language of ancient
Sumer
.
|
Tambora
|
Extinct
|
Indonesia
|
Poorly documented, extinct since the
1815 eruption of Mount Tambora
, basic vocabulary points towards it being an isolate.
|
Oceania
[
edit
]
Current research considers that the
"Papuasphere"
centered in
New Guinea
includes as many as 37 isolates.
[39]
(The more is known about these languages in the future, the more likely it is for these languages to be later assigned to a known language family.) To these, one must add several isolates found among non-
Pama-Nyungan
languages of Australia
:
[40]
Language
|
Speakers
|
Status
|
Countries
|
Comments
|
Abinomn
|
300
|
Vibrant
|
Indonesia
|
Spoken in the far north of
New Guinea
. Also known as Bas or Foia. Language is considered safe by UNESCO but endangered by
Ethnologue
.
[41]
|
Anem
|
800
|
Papua New Guinea
|
Spoken on the northwest coast of
New Britain
.
[42]
Perhaps related to Yeli Dnye and Ata.
[43]
|
Ata
|
2,000
|
Spoken in the central highlands of
New Britain
. Also known as Wasi. Perhaps related to Yeli Dnye and Anem.
[44]
[45]
|
Busa
|
370
|
Spoken in
Sandaun Province
, northwestern Papua New Guinea. Added to
Senu River
.
[46]
|
Giimbiyu
|
Extinct
|
Australia
|
Spoken in the northern part of
Arnhem Land
until the early 1980s. Sometimes considered a small language family consisting of Mengerrdji, Urningangk and Erre.
[47]
Part of a proposal for the undemonstrated
Arnhem Land language family
.
|
Kol
|
4,000
|
Vibrant
|
Papua New Guinea
|
Spoken in the northeastern part of
New Britain
. Possibly related to the poorly known
Sulka
, or the
Baining languages
, suggested as part of the
East Papuan languages
.
[48]
[49]
|
Kuot
|
2,400
|
Vulnerable
|
Papua New Guinea
|
Spoken on
New Ireland
. Also known as Panaras. Suggested to form part of the
East Papuan family
.
[49]
|
Malak-Malak
|
10
|
Moribund
|
Australia
|
Spoken in northern
Australia
. Often considered part of one Northern Daly family together with
Tyeraity
. Used to be considered genetically related to the
Wagaydyic languages
, but nowadays they are considered genetically distinct.
[50]
|
Murrinh-patha
|
1,973
|
Vibrant
|
Spoken on the eastern coast of
Joseph Bonaparte Gulf
in the
Top End
. The proposed linkage to
Ngan'gityemerri
in one
Southern Daly
family
[51]
is generally accepted to be valid.
|
Mpur
|
5000
|
Vibrant
|
Indonesia
|
Spoken in the Mpur and Amberbaken Districts,
Tambrauw Regency
on the north coast of the
Bird's Head Peninsula
.
|
Ngan'gityemerri
|
26
|
Moribund
|
Australia
|
Spoken in the
Top End
along the Daly River. The proposed linkage to
Murrinh-patha
in one
Southern Daly
family
[51]
is generally accepted to be valid.
|
Pyu
|
250
|
Vibrant
|
Papua New Guinea
|
Spoken in
Green River Rural LLG
in
Sandaun Province
, near the Indonesian border. Linked to neighboring
Left May
and
Amto-Musan
in a proposed
Arai-Samaia
family.
[52]
|
Sulka
|
2,500?3,000
|
Vibrant
|
New Britain
,
Papua New Guinea
|
Possible language isolate spoken across the eastern end of New Britain. Poorly attested. Suggested to form part of the
East Papuan family
.
[49]
|
Tayap
|
>50
|
Moribund
|
Papua New Guinea
|
Formerly spoken in the village of
Gapun
. Links to
Lower Sepik languages
and
Torricelli languages
have been explored, but the general consensus among linguists is that it is an isolate unrelated to surrounding languages.
[53]
|
Tiwi
|
2,040
|
Vulnerable
|
Australia
|
Spoken in the
Tiwi Islands
in the
Timor Sea
. Traditionally Tiwi is polysynthetic, but the Tiwi spoken by younger generations is not.
[54]
|
Wagiman
|
11
|
Moribund
|
Spoken in the southern part of the
Top End
. May be distantly related to the
Yangmanic languages
,
[55]
which might in turn be a member of the
Macro-Gunwinyguan
family,
[40]
but neither link has been demonstrated.
|
Wardaman
|
50
|
Spoken in the southern part of the
Top End
. The extinct and poorly attested Dagoman and Yangman dialects are sometimes treated as separate languages, forming a
Yangmanic
family, to which
Wagiman
may be distantly related.
[55]
Possibly a member of the
Macro-Gunwinyguan
family,
[40]
but this has yet to be demonstrated.
|
Europe
[
edit
]
North America
[
edit
]
Language
|
Speakers
|
Status
|
Countries
|
Comments
|
Alsea
|
Extinct
|
United States
|
Poorly attested. Spoken along the central coast of
Oregon
until the early 1950s.
[61]
Sometimes regarded as two separate languages. Often included in the
Penutian
hypothesis in a
Coast Oregon Penutian
branch.
[62]
|
Atakapa
|
Spoken on the Gulf coast of eastern
Texas
and southwestern
Louisiana
until the early 1900s. Often linked to
Muskogean
in a
Gulf
hypothesis.
[63]
|
Chimariko
|
Spoken in northern
California
until the 1950s.
[64]
Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis.
[65]
|
Chitimacha
|
Well-attested. Spoken along the Gulf coast of southeastern
Louisiana
until 1940.
[66]
Possibly in the
Totozoquean
family of Mesoamerica.
[66]
|
Coahuilteco
|
United States
,
Mexico
|
Spoken in southern
Texas
and northeastern
Mexico
until the 1700s. Part of the
Pakawan
hypothesis,
[67]
has been linked to the hypothesised
Hokan languages
in a larger group.
[68]
|
Cuitlatec
|
Mexico
|
Spoken in northern
Guerrero
until the 1960s.
[69]
Has been proposed to be part of
Macro-Chibchan
[70]
and
Uto-Aztecan
.
[69]
|
Esselen
|
United States
|
Poorly known. Spoken in the
Big Sur
region of
California
until the early 1800s. Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis.
[71]
|
Haida
|
24
|
Moribund
|
Canada
,
United States
|
Spoken in the
Haida Gwaii
archipelago off the northwest coast of
British Columbia
, and the southern islands of the
Alexander Archipelago
in southeastern
Alaska
. Some proposals connect it to the
Na-Dene languages
, but these have fallen into disfavor.
[72]
|
Huave
|
20,000
|
Endangered
|
Mexico
|
Spoken in the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
, in the southeast of
Oaxaca
state. Has been linked to various language families, but is still generally considered an isolate.
[73]
|
Karuk
|
12
|
Moribund
|
United States
|
Spoken along the
Klamath River
in northwestern
California
. Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis, but little evidence for this.
[73]
|
Keres
|
13,190
|
Endangered
|
Spoken in several pueblos throughout
New Mexico
, including
Cochiti
and
Acoma
Pueblos. Has two main dialects: Eastern and Western. Sometimes those two dialects are separated into languages in a Keresan family.
[74]
|
Kutenai
|
345
|
Moribund
|
Canada
,
United States
|
Spoken in the
Rockies
of northeastern
Idaho
, northwestern
Montana
and southeastern
British Columbia
. Attempts have been made to place it in a Macro-Algic or Macro-Salishan family, but these have not gained significant support.
[73]
|
Natchez
|
Extinct
|
United States
|
Spoken in southern
Mississippi
and eastern
Louisiana
until 1957.
[75]
Often linked to
Muskogean
in a
Gulf
hypothesis.
[76]
Attempts at revival have produced six people with some fluency.
[77]
|
Purepecha
|
140,000
|
Endangered
|
Mexico
|
Spoken in the north of
Michoacan
state. Language of the ancient
Tarascan
kingdom. Sometimes regarded as two languages.
[73]
|
Salinan
|
Extinct
|
United States
|
Spoken along the south-central coast of
California
. Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis.
[78]
|
Seri
|
720
|
Vulnerable
|
Mexico
|
Spoken along the coast of the
Gulf of California
, in the southwest of
Sonora
state. Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis.
[79]
|
Siuslaw
|
Extinct
|
United States
|
Spoken on the southwest coast of
Oregon
until 1960. Likely related to
Alsea
,
Coosan languages
, or possibly the
Wintuan languages
. Part of the
Penutian
hypothesis.
[62]
|
Takelma
|
Spoken in western
Oregon
until mid 20th century.
[80]
Part of the
Penutian
hypothesis.
[80]
|
Timucua
|
Well attested. Spoken in northern
Florida
and southern
Georgia
until the mid- to late 1700s. Briefly spoken in Cuba by a migrant community established in 1763. A connection with the poorly known
Tawasa language
has been suggested, but this may be a dialect.
[81]
|
Tonkawa
|
Spoken in central and northern
Texas
until the early 1940s.
[
citation needed
]
|
Tunica
|
Spoken in western
Mississippi
, northeastern
Louisiana
, and southeastern
Arkansas
until 1948. Attempts at revitalization have produced 32 second-language speakers.
[
citation needed
]
|
Washo
|
20
|
Moribund
|
Spoken along the
Truckee River
in the Sierra Nevada of eastern
California
and northwestern
Nevada
. Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis.
[82]
|
Yana
|
Extinct
|
Well-attested. Spoken in northern
California
until 1916. Part of the
Hokan
hypothesis.
[83]
|
Yuchi
|
Extinct
|
Spoken in Oklahoma, but formerly spoken in eastern Tennessee. A connection to the
Siouan languages
has been proposed.
[84]
The last native speaker passed away in 2021, but there is an ongoing revitalization project that has trained a small number of L2s.
|
Zuni
|
9,620
|
Vulnerable
|
Spoken in
Zuni Pueblo
in northwestern
New Mexico
. Links to
Penutian
[85]
and
Keres
[86]
have been proposed.
|
South America
[
edit
]
Language
|
Speakers
|
Status
|
Countries
|
Comments
|
Aikana
|
200
|
Endangered
|
Brazil
|
Spoken in the
Amazon
of eastern
Rondonia
. Links to
Kanoe
and
Kwaza
have been tentatively proposed.
[87]
Arawakan
has been suggested.
[
citation needed
]
|
Andoque
|
370
|
Colombia
,
Peru
|
Spoken on the upper reaches of the
Japura River
. Extinct in Peru. Possibly
Witotoan
.
[88]
|
Betoi
|
Extinct
|
Venezuela
|
Spoken in the
Apure River
basin near the Colombian border until the 18th century.
Paezan
has been suggested.
[88]
|
Candoshi-Shapra
|
1,100
|
Endangered
|
Peru
|
Spoken along the Chapuli, Huitoyacu, Pastaza, and Morona river valleys in southwestern
Loreto
. Has been linked to various language families, but no agreement exists on its classification.
[89]
|
Canichana
|
Extinct
|
Bolivia
|
Spoken in the
Llanos de Moxos
region of
Beni Department
until around 2000. Connections with various language families have been proposed, none widely accepted.
[90]
|
Cayuvava
|
4
|
Moribund
|
Spoken in the
Amazon
west of
Mamore River
, north of
Santa Ana del Yacuma
in the
Beni Department
.
[91]
|
Chimane
|
5,300
|
Vulnerable
|
Spoken along the Beni river in
Beni Department
. Also spelled Tsimane. Sometimes split into multiple languages in a Moseten family. Linked to the
Chonan languages
in a
Moseten-Chonan
hypothesis.
[92]
|
Chiquitano
|
5,900
|
Endangered
|
Bolivia
,
Brazil
|
Spoken in the eastern part of Santa Cruz department and the southwestern part of
Mato Grosso
state. Has been linked to the
Macro-Je
family.
[93]
[94]
|
Cofan
|
2,400
|
Colombia
,
Ecuador
|
Spoken in northern
Sucumbios Province
and southern
Putumayo Department
. Also called A'ingae.
[95]
Sometimes classified as
Chibchan
, but the similarities appear to be due to borrowings. Seriously endangered in Colombia.
[96]
|
Fulnio
|
1,000
|
Moribund
|
Brazil
|
Spoken in the states of
Paraiba
,
Pernambuco
,
Alagoas
,
Sergipe
, and the northern part of
Bahia
. Divided into two dialects, Fulnio and Yate.
[97]
Sometimes classified as a
Macro-Je
language.
[98]
[99]
|
Guato
|
6
|
Spoken in the far south of
Mato Grosso
near the Bolivian border. Has been classified as
Macro-Je
, but this is disputed.
[100]
|
Itonama
|
5
|
Bolivia
|
Spoken in the far-eastern part of
Beni Department
. A relationship to
Paezan
has been suggested.
[101]
|
Kamentsa
|
4,000
|
Endangered
|
Colombia
|
Spoken in
Sibundoy
in the
Putumayo Department
. Also known as Camsa, Coche, Sibundoy, Kamentxa, Kamse, or Camentsea.
[
citation needed
]
|
Kanoe
|
5
|
Moribund
|
Brazil
|
Spoken in southeastern
Rondonia
. Also known as
Kapishana
. Tentatively linked to
Kwaza
and
Aikana
.
[87]
Part of a
Macro-Paesan
proposal.
[102]
|
Kunza
|
Extinct
|
Chile
|
Spoken in areas near
Salar de Atacama
until the 1950s. Also known as
Atacameno
. Part of a
Macro-Paesan
proposal.
[102]
|
Kwaza
|
54
|
Moribund
|
Brazil
|
Spoken in eastern
Rondonia
. Connections have been proposed with
Aikana
and
Kanoe
.
[87]
|
Leco
|
20
|
Bolivia
|
Spoken at the foot of the
Andes
in the
department of La Paz
.
[103]
|
Mapuche
|
260,000
|
Vulnerable
|
Chile
,
Argentina
|
Spoken in areas of the far-southern Andes and in the
Chiloe Archipelago
. Also known as
Mapudungun
,
Araucano
or
Araucanian
.
[104]
Variously part of
Andean
,
[70]
Macro-Panoan
,
[102]
or
Mataco?Guaicuru
[105]
proposals. Sometimes
Huilliche
is treated as a separate language, reclassifying Mapuche into an
Araucanian
family.
[106]
|
Munichi
|
Extinct
|
Peru
|
Spoken in the southern part of
Loreto Region
until the late 1990s. Possibly evolved either from a
mixed language
or a sister language to
Proto-Arawak
.
[107]
|
Movima
|
1,400
|
Vulnerable
|
Bolivia
|
Spoken in the
Llanos de Moxos
, in the north of
Beni Department
. Affiliations with
Canichana
,
Chibcha
and
Macro-Tucanoan
have been proposed, none of these have been proven.
[108]
|
Oti
|
Extinct
|
Brazil
|
Spoken in
Sao Paulo
until the early 1900s.
Macro-Je
has been suggested.
[109]
|
Paez
|
60,000
|
Vulnerable
|
Colombia
|
Spoken in the northern part of
Cauca Department
. Several proposed relationships in the
Paezan
hypothesis but nothing conclusive.
[110]
|
Puelche
|
Extinct
|
Argentina
,
Chile
|
Spoken in the Pampas region, last speaker died around 1960.
[111]
Sometimes linked to
Het
, as part of the
Chonan languages
.
[112]
Included in a proposed
Macro-Jibaro
family.
[113]
|
Tequiraca
|
Peru
|
Spoken in the central part of
Loreto
until the 1950s. Also known as
Auishiri
. A connection with
Canichana
has been proposed.
[
citation needed
]
|
Trumai
|
50
|
Moribund
|
Brazil
|
Settled on the upper Xingu River. Currently reside in the
Xingu National Park
in the northern part of
Mato Grosso
.
[114]
|
Urarina
|
3,000
|
Vulnerable
|
Peru
|
Spoken in the central part of the
Loreto Region
.
[115]
Part of the
Macro-Jibaro
proposal.
[116]
|
Waorani
|
2,000
|
Ecuador
,
Peru
|
Also known as Sabela. Spoken between the
Napo
and
Curaray
rivers. Could be spoken by several groups living in isolation.
[117]
|
Warao
|
28,000
|
Endangered
|
Guyana
,
Suriname
and
Venezuela
|
Spoken in the
Orinoco Delta
. Sometimes linked to
Paezan
.
[102]
|
Yaghan
|
Extinct
|
Chile
|
Spoken in far-southern
Tierra del Fuego
until 2022. Also called Yamana.
[118]
|
Yaruro
|
7,900
|
Vibrant
|
Venezuela
|
Spoken along the
Orinoco
,
Cinaruco
,
Meta
, and
Apure
rivers. Linked to the extinct
Esmeralda language
.
[119]
|
Yuracare
|
2,700
|
Endangered
|
Bolivia
|
Spoken in the foothills of the Andes, in
Cochabamba
and
Beni
Departments. Connections to
Mosetenan
,
Pano?Tacanan
,
Arawakan
, and
Chonan
have been suggested.
[120]
|
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Campbell, Lyle (2010-08-24).
"Language Isolates and Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?"
.
Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society
.
36
(1): 16?31.
doi
:
10.3765/bls.v36i1.3900
.
ISSN
2377-1666
.
- ^
p. xi. Lyle Campbell. 2018. "Introduction".
Language Isolates
edited by Lyle Campbell, pp. xi?xiv. Routledge.
- ^
Urban, Matthias (April 2021).
"The geography and development of language isolates"
.
Royal Society Open Science
.
8
(4): rsos.202232, 202232.
Bibcode
:
2021RSOS....802232U
.
doi
:
10.1098/rsos.202232
.
ISSN
2054-5703
.
PMC
8059667
.
PMID
33996125
.
- ^
Bradley, John (2016).
Wuka nya-nganunga li-Yanyuwa li-Anthawirriyarra = Language for us, the Yanyuwa Saltwater People: a Yanyuwa encyclopaedia. Volume 1
. Jean F. Kirton, Elfreda MacDonald. North Melbourne, Vic.
ISBN
978-1-925003-67-3
.
OCLC
957570810
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
a
b
Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988).
Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics
. Terrence Kaufman. Berkeley.
ISBN
0-520-07893-4
.
OCLC
16525266
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
a
b
Senghas, Ann; Coppola, Marie (July 2001).
"Children Creating Language: How Nicaraguan Sign Language Acquired a Spatial Grammar"
.
Psychological Science
.
12
(4): 323?328.
doi
:
10.1111/1467-9280.00359
.
ISSN
0956-7976
.
PMID
11476100
.
S2CID
9978841
.
- ^
Roger D. Woodard, ed. (2004).
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
0-521-56256-2
.
OCLC
59471649
.
- ^
Mallory, J. P. (2000).
The Tarim mummies: ancient China and the mystery of the earliest peoples from the West, with 190 illustrations, 13 in color
. Victor H. Mair. New York, N.Y.: Thames & Hudson.
ISBN
0-500-05101-1
.
OCLC
43378559
.
- ^
A., Leitch, Barbara (1979).
A Concise dictionary of Indian tribes of North America
. Algonac, MI.
OCLC
868981165
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
T., Muzale, H. R. (2004).
Kamusi ya Lugha ya Alama ya Tanzania (LAT) = Tanzanian Sign Language (TSL) dictionary: Kiswahili-TSL-English
. Languages of Tanzania Project, University of Dar es Salaam.
ISBN
9987-691-02-1
.
OCLC
67947374
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
a
b
de Vos, Connie (March 2011).
"Kata Kolok Color Terms and the Emergence of Lexical Signs in Rural Signing Communities"
.
The Senses and Society
.
6
(1): 68?76.
doi
:
10.2752/174589311X12893982233795
.
hdl
:
11858/00-001M-0000-0012-BB5A-6
.
ISSN
1745-8927
.
S2CID
218839277
.
- ^
Nonaka, Angela M. (July 2009).
"Estimating size, scope, and membership of the speech/sign communities of undocumented indigenous/village sign languages: The Ban Khor case study"
.
Language & Communication
.
29
(3): 210?229.
doi
:
10.1016/j.langcom.2009.02.004
.
- ^
"UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger"
.
unesco.org
. UNESCO
. Retrieved
13 February
2021
.
- ^
Blench, Roger. 2017. African language isolates. In
Language Isolates
, edited by Lyle Campbell, pp. 176?206. Routledge.
- ^
Starostin, George.
"The Nilo-Saharan hypothesis tested through lexicostatistics: current state of affairs"
.
Academia
.
- ^
Harald Hammarstrom; Robert Forkel; Martin Haspelmath; Sebastian Bank (2020-04-16),
"Linguistics"
,
glottolog/glottolog: Glottolog database 4.2.1
,
doi
:
10.5281/zenodo.3754591
, retrieved
2020-08-12
- ^
Blench, Roger.
"Niger-Congo: an Alternative View"
(PDF)
.
- ^
Hantgan, Abbie; List, Johann-Mattis (September 2018).
Bangime: Secret Language, Language Isolate, or Language Island?
.
- ^
a
b
Witzlack-Makarevich, Alena; Nakagawa, Hirosi (2019). "Linguistic Features and Typologies in Languages Commonly Referred to as 'Khoisan'
". In Ekkehard-Wolff, H. (ed.).
The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics
. CUP. pp. 382?416.
- ^
Miller, Kirk.
"Highlights of Hadza Fieldwork"
.
Academia
.
- ^
Kleinewillinghofer, Ulrich (2001). "Jalaa: An Almost Forgotten Language of Northeastern Nigeria: A Language Isolate?".
Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika
. 16?17: 239?271.
- ^
Ahland, Colleen (2010). "The Classification of Gumuz and Koman Languages".
Language Isolates in Africa Workshop
.
- ^
"Burushaski Script In Roman Perso Arabic Characters Okayed"
.
Dawn News
. 2 February 2023
. Retrieved
11 February
2023
.
- ^
"John D Bengtson"
.
jdbengt.net
. Retrieved
19 March
2019
.
- ^
Hamp, Eric P. (August 2013).
"The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View"
(PDF)
.
Sino-Platonic Papers
.
239
: 8
. Retrieved
5 April
2014
.
- ^
Casule, Ilija. 2003. Evidence for the Indo-European laryngeals in Burushaski and its genetic affiliation with Indo-European.
The Journal of Indo-European Studies
31:1?2, pp 21?86.
- ^
John Bengtson
,
Some features of Dene?Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque).
Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL) 30.4: 33?54,
- ^
John Bengtson and V. Blazek, "Lexica Dene?Caucasica". Central Asiatic Journal 39, 1995, 11?50 & 161?164
- ^
Stolper, Matthew W. 2008.
Elamite
. In
The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum
. p. 47-50.
- ^
David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian",
Language
vol. 50 no. 1 (1974); David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships",
Current Anthropology
vol. 16 no. 1 (1975); David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook:
Aryan and Non-Aryan in India
, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979); David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications",
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)
- ^
"The language that doesn't use 'no'
"
.
- ^
"Resuscitating dying Kusunda language"
. Kathmandupost.com. 2019-01-04
. Retrieved
2022-09-03
.
- ^
Blench, Roger. 2011.
(De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconsidering the evidence
Archived
2013-05-26 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"Nihali"
.
Endangered Languages Project
. Retrieved
30 January
2021
.
- ^
Nagaraja, K.S (2014).
The Nihali Language
. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. p. 250.
ISBN
978-81-7343-144-9
.
- ^
Fortescue, Michael. 2016.
Comparative Nivkh Dictionary
. Languages of the World/Dictionaries (LW/D) 62. Munich: Lincom Europa.
ISBN
978-3-86288-687-6
- ^
Fortescue, Michael (2011). "The relationship of Nivkh to Chukotko-Kamchatkan revisited".
Lingua
.
121
(8): 1359?1376.
doi
:
10.1016/j.lingua.2011.03.001
.
- ^
Joan Oates
(1979).
Babylon
[Revised Edition] Thames and Hudston, Ltd. 1986 p. 30, 52?53.
- ^
Palmer, Bill (2017).
"Language families of the New Guinea Area"
. In Bill Palmer (ed.).
The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area
. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 1?20.
doi
:
10.1515/9783110295252-001
.
ISBN
978-3-11-029525-2
. Retrieved
2020-08-03
.
- ^
a
b
c
Evans, N. "Introduction" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region".
Studies in Language Change
, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
- ^
"Size and vitality of Abinomn"
.
Ethnologue
. Retrieved
2020-08-12
.
- ^
Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2019).
"Papua New Guinea languages"
.
Ethnologue
: Languages of the World
(22nd ed.). Dallas:
SIL International
.
- ^
Stebbins, Tonya; Evans, Bethwyn; Terrill, Angela (2018). "The Papuan languages of Island Melanesia". In Palmer, Bill (ed.).
The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide
. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 775?894.
ISBN
978-3-11-028642-7
.
- ^
Ross, Malcolm (2001),
Is there an East Papuan phylum? Evidence from pronouns
, Pacific Linguistics,
ISBN
978-0-85883-445-3
, retrieved
2020-08-12
- ^
Ross, Malcolm (2005),
Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages
, Pacific Linguistics,
ISBN
978-0-85883-562-7
, retrieved
2020-08-12
- ^
NewGuineaWorld, Senu River
- ^
Campbell, R. "A Sketch Grammar of Urningangk, Erre and Mengerrdji: the Giimbiyu languages of Western Arnhem Land". Honours thesis. University of Melbourne, 2006.
- ^
"Kol"
.
Endangered Language Project
.
- ^
a
b
c
Dunn, Michael; Reesnik, Ger; Terrill, Angela (2002).
"The East Papuan Languages: A Preliminary Typological Appraisal"
(PDF)
.
Oceanic Linguistics
.
41
(1): 28?62.
doi
:
10.1353/ol.2002.0019
.
hdl
:
11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1ADC-1
.
S2CID
143012930
. Retrieved
6 February
2021
.
- ^
Nordlinger, Rachel
(2017). "Chapter 37: The languages of the Daly region (Northern Australia)". In
Fortescue, Michael
;
Mithun, Marianne
;
Evans, Nicholas
(eds.).
Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis
. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 782?807.
- ^
a
b
Green, I. "The Genetic Status of Murrinh-patha" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region".
Studies in Language Change
, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
- ^
NewGuineaWorld, Arai and Samaia Rivers
- ^
Kulick, Don; Terrill, Angela (2019).
A Grammar and Dictionary of Tayap: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language
. Pacific Linguistics 661. Boston/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Inc.
ISBN
978-1-5015-1220-9
.
- ^
Lee, Jennifer (1987).
"Tiwi Today: A Study of Language Change in a Contact Situation"
(PDF)
.
Pacific Linguistics
: 50 – via JSTOR.
- ^
a
b
Merlan, F. "A Grammar of Wardaman: a language of the Northern Territory of Australia." Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994.
- ^
(in French)
VI° Enquete Sociolinguistique en Euskal herria (Communaute Autonome d'Euskadi, Navarre et Pays Basque Nord)
(2016)
- ^
Hualde, Jose Ignacio; Lakarra, Joseba.; Trask, R. L. (Robert Lawrence) (1995).
Towards a history of the Basque language
. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 81.
ISBN
978-90-272-8567-6
.
OCLC
709596553
.
- ^
Mallory, J. P. (1989).
In search of the Indo-Europeans: language, archaeology, and myth
. New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN
0-500-05052-X
.
OCLC
20394139
.
- ^
Orduna Aznar, Eduardo (2005).
"Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibericos"
.
Palaeohispanica
.
5
: 491?506.
- ^
Bengtson, John (2004).
"Some features of Dene-Caucasian Phonology (with special reference to Basque)"
(PDF)
.
Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain
.
30
(4): 33?54.
doi
:
10.2143/CILL.30.4.2003307
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2011-07-28
. Retrieved
20 February
2021
.
- ^
Buckley, Eugene (1989). "The Structure of the Alsea Verb Root: Papers from the 1989 Hokan-Penutian Workshop. Ed. Scott DeLancey".
University of Oregon Papers in Linguistics
.
2
(17).
- ^
a
b
Grant, A.P. (1997).
"Coast Oregon Penutian: Problems and Possibilities"
.
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
63
(1): 144?156.
doi
:
10.1086/466316
.
S2CID
143822361
. Retrieved
7 February
2021
.
- ^
Munro, Pamela (1994). "Gulf and Yuki-Gulf".
Anthropological Linguistics
.
36
(2): 125?222.
ISSN
0003-5483
.
JSTOR
30028292
.
- ^
Golla, Victor (2011).
Californian Indian Languages
. University of California Press. p. 89.
- ^
Jany, Carmen (2009).
Chimariko Grammar: Areal and Typographical Perspective
. Santa Barbara: University of California Press. p. 3.
ISBN
978-0-520-09875-6
. Retrieved
7 February
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Brown, Cecil; Wichmann, Soren; Beck, Dacid (2014). "Chitimacha: a Mesoamerican Language Spoken in the Lower Mississippi Valley".
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
80
(4): 426?484.
doi
:
10.1086/677911
.
S2CID
145538166
.
- ^
Campbell, Lyle (1996). "Coahuiltecan: A Closer Look".
Anthropological Linguistics
.
38
(4): 620?634.
JSTOR
30013048
.
- ^
Langdon, Margaret (2011).
Comparative Hokan-Coahuiltecan Studies: A Survey and Appraisal
. De Gruyter.
ISBN
978-3-11-088783-9
. Retrieved
9 February
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Escalante Hernandez, Robert (1982).
El Cuitlateco
. Mexico, D.F.: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.
- ^
a
b
Greenberg, Joseph; Ruhlen, Merritt.
An Amerind Etymological Dictionary
(PDF)
. Dept. of Anthropological Sciences Stanford University. p. 276. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2010-12-25
. Retrieved
9 February
2021
.
- ^
Leedom Shaul, David (1995).
"The Huelel (Esselen) language"
.
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
61
(5): 191?239.
doi
:
10.1086/466251
.
S2CID
144781879
. Retrieved
10 February
2021
.
- ^
Levine, Robert D. (1979). "Haida and Na-Dene: A new look at the evidence".
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
45
(2): 151?170.
doi
:
10.1086/465587
.
S2CID
143503584
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Campbell, Lyle (1997).
American Indian Languages ? The Historical Linguistics of Native America
. Oxford: Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, Oxford University Press.
- ^
Miller, Wick (1963).
"Proto-Keresan Phonology"
.
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
29
(4): 310?330.
doi
:
10.1086/464748
.
S2CID
143519987
. Retrieved
11 February
2021
.
- ^
Kimball, Geoffry (2005).
"Natchez"
. In Janine Scancarelli; Heather Kay Hardy (eds.).
Native Languages of the Southeastern United States
. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 385?453.
ISBN
978-0-8032-4235-7
.
- ^
Haas, M.R. (1956). "Natchez and the Muskogean languages".
Language
.
32
(1): 61?72.
doi
:
10.2307/410653
.
JSTOR
410653
.
- ^
Smith, Diane (2011-06-15).
"University helps Native Americans save languages: Project aims to increase field linguists"
.
Seattle Times Newspaper
. Retrieved
2013-06-02
.
- ^
Turner, Katherina (1983).
"Areal and Genetic linguistic affiliations of the Salinan"
.
Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics
.
8
(2): 215?247
. Retrieved
12 February
2021
.
- ^
Marlett, Stephen.
"La situacion sociolinguistica de la lengua seri en 2006"
(PDF)
.
Lenguas de las Americas
. lengamer.org
. Retrieved
12 February
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Kendall, Daythall (1997). "The Takelma Verb: Towards Proto-Takelma-Kalapuyan".
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
63
(1): 1?17.
doi
:
10.1086/466312
.
JSTOR
1265863
.
S2CID
144593968
.
- ^
Granberry, Julian (1990).
"A grammatical sketch of Timucua"
.
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
56
(1): 60?101.
doi
:
10.1086/466138
.
S2CID
143759206
.
- ^
Mithun, Marianne (2001).
The Languages of Native North America
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 303.
ISBN
978-0-521-29875-9
. Retrieved
17 February
2021
.
- ^
Mithun, Marianne (2001).
The Languages of Native North America
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 564.
ISBN
978-0-521-29875-9
. Retrieved
17 February
2021
.
- ^
Mithun, Marianne (2001).
The Languages of Native North America
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 571.
ISBN
978-0-521-29875-9
. Retrieved
17 February
2021
.
- ^
Goddard, Ives (1996). "The classification of the native languages of North America.". In Goddard, I (ed.).
Handbook of North American Indians: Languages
. pp. 290?323.
- ^
Campbell, L; Mithun, M (2014).
The Languages of Native America:Historical and Comparative Assessment
. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 418.
ISBN
978-0-292-76850-5
. Retrieved
17 February
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
Van der Voort, Hein. 2005. Kwaza in a comparative perspective.
International Journal of American Linguistics
71: 365?412.
- ^
a
b
"South America".
Atlas of the World's Languages
. London: Routledge. 2007.
- ^
Fabre, Alain.
"Diccionario etnolinguistico y guia bibliografica de los pueblos indigenas sudamericanos. CANDOSHI"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Crevils, Mily.
"Tomo II: Amazonia ? Canichana"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Crevils, Mily.
"Tomo II: Amazonia ? Cayubaba"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Sakel, Jeanette.
"Tomo I: Ambito andino ? Moseten y Chimane (Tsimane')"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Galeote, Jesus.
"Tomo III: Oriente ? Chiquitano"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Adelaar, Willem (2008). "Chapter 1: Relacoes externas do Macro-Je: O caso do chiquitano". In elles de Araujo Pereira Lima, S.V; Santos de Paula, A (eds.).
Topicalizando Macro-Je
. Nectar. pp. 9?28.
- ^
"Cofan"
.
Endangered Languages Project
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Stark, Louisa (1985). "Chapter 3: Indigenous Languages of Lowland Ecuador: History and Current Status". In Manells Klein, Harriet; Stark, Louisa (eds.).
South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect
. University of Texas Press. p. 165.
ISBN
978-0-292-73732-7
. Retrieved
21 February
2021
.
- ^
"Yate"
.
Endangered Languages Project
. Retrieved
20 February
2021
.
- ^
Crevils, Mily (2012).
"Chapter III: Language Endangerment in South America:The Clock is Ticking"
. In Campbell, Lyle; Grondona, Veronica (eds.).
Classification of the Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide
. De Gruyter. p. 185.
ISBN
978-3-11-025803-5
. Retrieved
21 February
2021
.
- ^
Melatti, Julio Cezar.
"Aspectos culturais (nao linguisticos) dos povos falantes de linguas do tronco Macro-Je-Roteiro para discussao no IX Encontro Macro-Je"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
20 February
2021
.
- ^
Campbell, Lyle (2012).
"Chapter II: Classification of the Indigenous Languages of South America"
. In Campbell, Lyle; Grondona, Veronica (eds.).
Classification of the Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide
. De Gruyter. p. 136.
ISBN
978-3-11-025803-5
. Retrieved
21 February
2021
.
- ^
Crevils, Mily.
"Tomo II: Amazonia ? Itonama"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Kaufman, Terrence. 1994. The native languages of South America. In: Christopher Moseley and R. E. Asher (eds.),
Atlas of the World's Languages
, 59?93. London: Routledge.
- ^
Van der Kerke, Simon.
"Tomo I: Ambito andino ? Leco"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Zuniga, Fernando (2006).
Los mapuches y su lengua
. Santiago de Chile: Centro de Estudios Publicos. p. 402.
- ^
Viegas Barros, Jose Pedro (2013).
"La hipotesis de parentesco Guaicuru-Mataguayo: estado actual de la cuestion"
.
Revista Brasileira de Linguistica Antropologica
.
5
(2): 293?333.
doi
:
10.26512/rbla.v5i2.16269
.
hdl
:
11336/28247
. Retrieved
21 February
2021
.
- ^
Mason, John Alden (1950). "
"The Languages of South America"
". In steward, Julian (ed.).
Handbook of South American Indians
. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin. pp. 157?317.
- ^
Gibson, Michael Luke (2008).
El Munichi: Un idioma que se extingue
(PDF)
. Yarinacocha: Instituto Linguistico de Verano. p. 19
. Retrieved
21 February
2021
.
- ^
Haude, Katharina.
"Tomo II: Amazonia ? Movima"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
- ^
Rodrigues, Aryon (1999). "6: The Amazonian Languages". In Dixon, R.M.W (ed.).
The Amazonian Languages
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^
Adelaar, Willem; Muysken, Pieter (2004).
The Languages of the Andes
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 393?397.
- ^
Viegas Barros, J. Pedro.
"Un nuevo analisis fonologico del Gununa Yajuch"
(PDF)
.
ADILQ
. Asociacion de Investigadores en Lengua Quechua
. Retrieved
21 February
2021
.
- ^
Viegas Barros, J. Pedro (1992). "La familia linguistica tehuelche".
Revista Patagonica
.
54
(13): 39?46.
- ^
Kaufman, Ternece (1990). "Language History in South America: What We Know and How to Know More". In Payne, Doris (ed.).
Amazonian Linguistics Studies in Lowland South American Languages
. University of Texas Press.
- ^
Angelis, Wimar.
"
"Linguas Indigenas no Brasil: urgencia de acoes para que sobrevivam." Paper presented at the round table: "A situacao atual das linguas indigenas brasileiras", no IX ELESI ? Encontro sobre Leitura e Escrita em Sociedades Indigenas (Porto Seguro, BA, 22 a 26 de outubro de 2012). Publicada em: Anari Braz Bomfim & Francisco Vanderlei F. da Costa (orgs), Revitalizacao de lingua indigena e educacao escolar indigena inclusiva (Salvador: Egba, 2014, p. 93-117)"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
27 February
2021
.
[
dead link
]
- ^
Olawsky, Knut (2006).
A Grammar of Urarina
(First ed.). De Gruyter. p. 3.
ISBN
978-3-11-019020-5
. Retrieved
21 January
2021
.
- ^
Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.),
Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages
(pp. 13?67). Austin: University of Texas Press.
ISBN
0-292-70414-3
.
- ^
Colleoni, Paola; Proano, Jose (2010).
CAMINANTES DE LA SELVA
[
JUNGLE WALKERS
]
(PDF)
. Quito: Grupo Internacional de Trabajo sobre Asuntos Indigenas (IWGIA). p. 10
. Retrieved
27 February
2021
.
- ^
Vega, Jorge (31 May 2019).
"In Chile's remote south, the last speaker of an ancient language fights to keep it alive"
. Reuters
. Retrieved
3 June
2019
.
- ^
Adelaar, William F. H.; Muysken, Pieter C. (2004).
The languages of the Andes
. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156?161.
ISBN
978-1-139-45112-3
.
- ^
Van Gijn, Rik.
"Tomo III: Oriente ? Yurakare"
.
Lenguas de Bolivia
. Centre for Language Studies-Radboud University
. Retrieved
19 February
2021
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Campbell, Lyle
, ed. 2017.
Language Isolates
. Routledge.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997).
American Indian languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America
. New York:
Oxford University Press
.
ISBN
0-19-509427-1
.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996).
Languages
. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
ISBN
0-16-048774-9
.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999).
Native Languages and Language Families of North America
(rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE:
University of Nebraska Press
(Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996).
ISBN
0-8032-9271-6
.
- Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000).
Ethnologue: Languages of the world
, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX:
SIL International
.
ISBN
1-55671-106-9
. (Online edition:
Ethnologue: Languages of the World
).
- Mithun, Marianne
. (1999).
The languages of Native North America
. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
.
ISBN
0-521-23228-7
(hbk);
ISBN
0-521-29875-X
.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978?present).
Handbook of North American Indians
(Vol. 1?20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1?3, 16, 18?20 not yet published).
External links
[
edit
]