Siouan language spoken by the Lakota people of the Sioux tribes
Lakota
|
---|
|
Pronunciation
| [la?k??t?jap?]
|
---|
Native to
| United States
, with some speakers in
Canada
|
---|
Region
| Primarily
North Dakota
and
South Dakota
, but also northern
Nebraska
, southern
Minnesota
, and northern
Montana
|
---|
Ethnicity
| Teton Sioux
|
---|
Native speakers
| (2,100, 29% of ethnic population cited 1997?2016)
[1]
|
---|
| |
---|
|
ISO 639-3
| lkt
|
---|
Glottolog
| lako1247
|
---|
ELP
| Lakota
|
---|
Map of core pre-contact Lakota territory
|
|
This article contains
IPA
phonetic symbols.
Without proper
rendering support
, you may see
question marks, boxes, or other symbols
instead of
Unicode
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
Help:IPA
.
|
Lakota
(
Lak?otiyapi
[la?k??t?jap?]
), also referred to as
Lakhota
,
Teton
or
Teton Sioux
, is a
Siouan language
spoken by the
Lakota people
of the
Sioux
tribes. Lakota is mutually intelligible with the two dialects of the
Dakota language
, especially
Western Dakota
, and is one of the three major
varieties
of the
Sioux language
.
Speakers of the Lakota language make up one of the largest
Native American language
speech communities in the
United States
, with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in the northern plains states of
North Dakota
and
South Dakota
.
[1]
Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults.
Like many indigenous languages, the Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop a written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage.
One significant figure in the development of a written form of Lakota was
Dr. Ella Cara Deloria
, also called Aŋpetu Wa?te Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman), a Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with the Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as
Franz Boas
and
Edward Sapir
to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars.
[2]
Another key figure was
Albert White Hat Sr.
, who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater,
Sinte Gleska University
at Mission, South Dakota, one of the first tribal-based universities in the US.
[3]
His work focused on the
Sicangu
dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries.
History and origin
[
edit
]
The
Lakota people
's creation stories say that language originated from the creation of the tribe.
[4]
[5]
Other creation stories say language was invented by
Iktomi
.
[6]
Phonology
[
edit
]
For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Lakota for Wikipedia articles, see
Help:IPA/Lakota
.
Vowels
[
edit
]
Lakota has five oral vowels,
/i
e
a
o
u/
, and three nasal vowels,
/?
a
?/
(phonetically
[??
??
??]
). Lakota
/e/
and
/o/
are said to be
more open
than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to
[?]
and
[?]
. Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with a following
⟨?⟩
,
⟨ŋ⟩
, or
⟨n⟩
; historically, these were written with
ogoneks
underneath,
⟨? ? ?⟩
.
[7]
No syllables end with consonantal
/n/
.
A neutral vowel (
schwa
) is
automatically inserted
between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs
⟨gl⟩
,
⟨bl⟩
and
⟨gm⟩
. So the clan name written phonemically as
⟨Oglala⟩
has become the place name
Ogallala
.
Consonants
[
edit
]
The
voiced uvular fricative
/?/
becomes a
uvular trill
(
[?]
) before
/i/
[8]
[9]
and in fast speech it is often realized as a
voiced velar fricative
[?]
. The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with a delay in voicing
([p?
t?
k?])
, and those with velar friction
([p?
t?
k?])
, which occur before
/a/
,
/a/
,
/o/
,
/?/
, and
/?/
(thus,
lakhota
,
/la?k?ota/
is phonetically
[la?k?ota]
). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before
/e/
. No such variation occurs for the affricate /t??/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives
/χ/
and
/?/
are commonly spelled
⟨?⟩
and
⟨?⟩
.
All
monomorphemic
words have one vowel which carries primary
stress
and has a higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent:
⟨a⟩
, etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus
maza-ska
, literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels, the first
a
in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as
mazaska
, it would imply a single main stress.
Phonological processes
[
edit
]
A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is
vowel contraction
, which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels (
phonemically
a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if the first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed:
ke:
(falling tone), "he said that", from
keye
;
h?:pi
(rising tone), "clothing", from
hayapi
. If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized:
?haŋ?:pi
, "sugar", from
?haŋhaŋpi
.
[8]
When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between the vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels,
[æː]
and
[?ː]
, result:
[8]
iyæ?:
, "he left for there", from
iyaye
;
mit?a:
, "it's mine", from
mit?awa
.
The plural
enclitic
=pi
is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics
=kte
,
=kiŋ
,
=k?to
, or
=na
. If the vowel preceding
=pi
is high/open,
=pi
becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed),
=pi
becomes [o] (if the preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized):
hi=pi=kte
, "they will arrive here", [hiukte];
yatkaŋ=pi=na
, "they drank it and...",
[jatk??ona]
.
[8]
Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the
point of articulation
changes to reflect intensity:
zi
, "it's yellow",
?i
, "it's tawny",
?i
, "it's brown".
[10]
(Compare with the similar examples in
Mandan
.)
Orthographies, standardization, and teaching materials
[
edit
]
Several orthographies as well as
ad hoc
spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented.
[11]
[12]
[13]
In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be the approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process."
[14]
Also in 2002,
Sinte Gleska University
rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium.
[14]
Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by
Albert White Hat
,
[15]
which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the
Rosebud Sioux Tribe
per Tribal Resolution No. 2012?343. This resolution also banned the Lakota Language Consortium and its "
Czech orthography
" from the reservation and its educational system.
[16]
This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC).
[14]
[17]
Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans.
[17]
Concerns arose due to the LLC's promotion of their
New Lakota Dictionary
, websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and ? foremost ? for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as "
neocolonial
domination."
[17]
Sonja John writes that "The new orthography the Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography ? making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota."
[18]
"The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects."
[19]
Rosebud Resolution No. 2008?295 goes further and compares these actions to what was done to children taken from their families by the
residential schools
.
[19]
In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at
Standing Rock
chose to collaborate with
Sitting Bull College
, and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies.
[20]
Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply the "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography."
[20]
Tasha Hauff writes,
Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and the LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use the LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for a fluent speaker to use.
[20]
In 2013 Lakota teachers at
Red Cloud Indian School
on
Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
discussed their use of orthography for their K-12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use
tipi
... Red Cloud spells it thipi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at
Stanford University
, disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with the orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language."
[21]
She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from the top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota".
[21]
In 2018, at the
Cheyenne River Indian Reservation
, Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him.
[22]
Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time is spent teaching and speaking the language.
[22]
On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the
Standing Rock Sioux
, in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and the LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission."
[23]
[24]
LLC alphabet
[
edit
]
The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character (
grapheme
) represents one distinctive sound (
phoneme
), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically.
Lakota vowels are
⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩
nasal vowels are
aŋ, iŋ, uŋ.
Pitch accent
is marked with an
acute accent
:
⟨a, e, i, o, u, aŋ, iŋ, uŋ⟩
on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones)
[25]
The following consonants approximate their IPA values:
⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩
.
⟨Y⟩
has its English value of
/j/
. An apostrophe,
⟨'⟩
, is used for the
glottal stop
.
A
caron
is used for sounds, other than
/ŋ/
, which are not written with Latin letters in the IPA:
⟨?⟩
/t?/
,
⟨?⟩
/?/
,
⟨?⟩
/χ/
,
⟨?⟩
/?/
,
⟨?⟩
/?/
. Aspirates are written with
⟨h⟩
:
⟨?h, kh, ph, th,⟩
and
velar frication
with
⟨?⟩
:
⟨k?, p?, t?.⟩
Ejectives are written with an apostrophe:
⟨?', ?', k', p', s', ?', t'⟩
.
The spelling used in modern popular texts is often written without
diacritics
. Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants:
/s/
and
/?/
are both written
⟨s⟩
,
/h/
and
/χ/
are both written
⟨h⟩
, and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as
⟨p, t, c, k⟩
.
Lakota alphabet
Letter
|
Name of the letter
|
Usual phonetic value (
IPA
)
|
A a
|
a
|
[a]
|
Aŋ aŋ
|
aŋ
|
[??]
|
B b
|
be
|
[b]
|
? ?
|
?u
|
[t?]
|
?h ?h
|
?hi
|
[t??]
|
?' ?'
|
?'o
|
[t??]
|
E e
|
e
|
[?]
|
G g
|
gli
|
[?]
|
? ?
|
?u
|
[?]
/
[?]
|
H h
|
ha
|
[h]
|
? ?
|
?e
|
[χ]
|
I i
|
i
|
[?]
|
Iŋ iŋ
|
iŋ
|
[??]
|
K k
|
ku
|
[k]
|
Kh kh
|
khi
|
[k?]
|
K? k?
|
k?a
|
[k?]
|
K' k'
|
k'o
|
[k?]
|
L l
|
la
|
[l]
|
M m
|
ma
|
[m]
|
N n
|
na
|
[n]
|
O o
|
o
|
[?]
|
P p
|
pu
|
[p]
|
Ph ph
|
phi
|
[p?]
|
P? p?
|
p?a
|
[p?]
|
P' p'
|
p'o
|
[p?]
|
S s
|
sa
|
[s]
|
? ?
|
?e
|
[?]
|
T t
|
tu
|
[t]
|
Th th
|
thi
|
[t?]
|
T? t?
|
t?a
|
[t?]
|
T' t'
|
t'o
|
[t?]
|
U u
|
u
|
[?]
|
Uŋ uŋ
|
uŋ
|
[??]
|
W w
|
wa
|
[w]
|
Y y
|
ya
|
[j]
|
Z z
|
za
|
[z]
|
? ?
|
?e
|
[?]
|
|
kheze
|
[?]
|
|
All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, k?, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example the word
?hiŋ
precedes
?onala
in a dictionary.
Curley alphabet
[
edit
]
In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935-2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet.
[26]
Grammar
[
edit
]
Word order
[
edit
]
The basic word order of Lakota is
subject?object?verb
, although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It is
postpositional
, with adpositions occurring after the head nouns:
mas'ophiye el
, "at the store" (literally 'store at');
thipi=kiŋ ok?aŋ
, "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996).
Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce a grammatical sentence that contains only a verb.
(interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction)
Interjections
[
edit
]
When
interjections
are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is
e?e?
for women but
ho?
for men; for calling attention women say
maŋ
while men use
waŋ
. Most interjections, however, are used by both genders.
Conjunctions
[
edit
]
It is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both
?haŋke
and
yuŋk?aŋ
can be translated as
and
;
k’eya?
is similar to English
but
. Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction
na
joins nouns or phrases.
Adverbs, postpositions and derived modifiers
[
edit
]
Lakota uses
postpositions
, which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement.
Adverbs
or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also
interrogative
adverbs, which are used to form questions.
Synonymity in the postpositions
el
and
ekta
[
edit
]
To the non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions
el
and
ekta
sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on the other. (Pustet 2013)
A pointer for when to use
el
and when to use
ekta
can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013):
- space / rest: "in the house" [thipi kiŋ el] (This sentence is only describing location of an object, no movement indicated)
- space / motion: "to the house [thipi kiŋ ekta] (This sentence is referring to movement of a subject, it is directional in nature)
- time / rest: "in the winter" [waniyetu kiŋ el] (This sentence refers to a static moment in time, which happens to be during winter)
- time / motion: "in/towards the winter" [waniyetu kiŋ ekta] (Pustet 2013) (This sentence is delegated to time, but time which is soon to change to another season)
Summed up, when a context describes no motion,
el
is the appropriate postposition; when in motion,
ekta
is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space.
Nouns and pronouns
[
edit
]
As mentioned above,
nominals
are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject?object?verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used
contrastively
or emphatically.
Lakota has four
articles
:
waŋ
is indefinite, similar to English
a
or
an
, and
kiŋ
is definite, similar to English
the
. In addition,
waŋ?i
is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or
irrealis
objects, and
k’uŋ
is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously.
Demonstratives
[
edit
]
There are also nine
demonstratives
, which can function either as pronouns or as
determiners
.
|
Distance from speaker
|
near the speaker
|
near the listener
|
away from both speaker and listener
|
singular
|
le
|
he
|
ka
|
dual
|
lenaos
|
henaos
|
kanaos
|
plural
|
lena
|
hena
|
kana
|
Verbs
[
edit
]
Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or
stative
, describing a property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with
adjectives
.)
Verbs are
inflected
for first-, second- or third
person
, and for singular,
dual
or plural
grammatical number
.
Morphology
[
edit
]
Verb inflection
[
edit
]
There are two paradigms for verb
inflection
. One set of
morphemes
indicates the
person
and
number
of the
subject
of active verbs. The other set of morphemes
agrees
with the
object
of
transitive
action verbs
or
the subject of stative verbs.
[8]
Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an
infix
.
First person arguments may be singular,
dual
, or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural.
Subject of active verbs
|
singular
|
dual
|
plural
|
first person
|
wa-
|
uŋ(k)-
|
uŋ(k)- ... -pi
|
second person
|
ya-
|
|
ya- ... -pi
|
third person
|
unmarked
|
|
-pi
|
Examples:
mani
"He walks."
manipi
"They walk."
Subject of stative verbs
|
singular
|
dual
|
plural
|
first person
|
ma-
|
uŋ(k)-
|
uŋ(k)- ... -pi
|
second person
|
ni-
|
|
ni- ... -pi
|
third person
|
unmarked
|
|
-pi
|
Object of transitive verbs
|
singular
|
dual
|
plural
|
first person
|
ma-
|
|
uŋ(k)- ... -pi
|
second person
|
ni-
|
|
ni- ... -pi
|
third person
|
unmarked
|
|
-wicha-
|
Example:
waŋwi?hayaŋke
"He looked at them" from
waŋyaŋkA
"to look at something/somebody".
Subject and object pronouns in one verb
If both the subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in
italics
and object affixes are marked in
underline
. Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as
?hi
- ...). The symbol
?
indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order.
|
me
|
you (sg.)
|
him/her/it; them (inanimate)
|
us
|
you (pl.)
|
them (animate)
|
I
|
|
?hi
-
1
...
|
wa
?
- ...
bl
?
- ...
m
?
- ...
|
|
?hi
- ... -
pi
|
wi?ha
wa
- ...
wi?ha
bl
- ...
wi?ha
m
- ...
|
you (sg.)
|
ma
ya
- ...
ma
yal
-
2
...
ma
yan
- ...
|
|
ya
?
- ...
l
?
- ...
n
?
- ...
|
uŋ
ya
- ... -
pi
uŋ
l
- ... -
pi
uŋ
n
- ... -
pi
|
|
wi?ha
ya
- ...
wi?ha
l
- ...
wi?ha
n
- ...
|
he/she/it
|
ma
?
- ...
|
ni
?
- ...
|
?
?
- ...
|
uŋ(k)
?
- ... -
pi
|
ni
?
- ... -
pi
|
wi?ha
?
- ...
|
we
|
|
uŋ
ni
-
3
... -
pi
|
uŋ(k)
?
- ... -
pi
|
|
uŋ
ni
- ... -
pi
|
wi?ha
uŋ(k)
-
4
... -
pi
|
you (pl.)
|
ma
ya
- ... -
pi
ma
yal
- ... -
pi
ma
yan
- ... -
pi
|
|
ya
?
- ... -
pi
l
?
- ... -
pi
n
?
- ... -
pi
|
uŋ
ya
- ... -
pi
5
uŋ
l
- ... -
pi
uŋ
n
- ... -
pi
|
|
wi?ha
ya
- ... -
pi
wi?ha
l
- ... -
pi
wi?ha
n
- ... -
pi
|
they
|
ma
- ... -
pi
|
ni
- ... -
pi
|
... -
?
pi
|
uŋ
- ... -
pi
|
ni
- ... -
pi
|
wi?ha
- ... -
pi
|
- 1
The affix
?hi
- covers cases where I-subject and you-object occurs in transitive verbs.
- 2
Class II and Class III verbs have irregular
yal
- and
yan
- respectively.
- 3
These prefixes are separated when
uŋ(k)
- must be prefixed while
ni
- et al. must be infixed.
Example:
uŋk
a
ni
p?epi
"We are waiting for you" from
ap?e
"to wait for somebody".
- 4
uŋ(k)
- precedes all affixes except
wi?ha
-. In the last column, verbs which require
uŋ(k)
- to be prefixed are more complex because of competing rules:
uŋ(k)
- must be prefixed, but must also follow
wi?ha
-. Most speakers resolve this issue by infixing
wi?hauŋ(k)
after the initial vowel, then repeating the initial vowel again.
Example:
i
wi?hauŋk
i?u
pi
"We took them" from
i?u
"to take something/somebody".
- 5
Since the suffix -
pi
can appear only once in each verb, but may pluralize either subject or object (or both), some ambiguity exists in the forms:
uŋ- ... -pi
,
uŋni- ... -pi
, and
uŋya-/uŋl-/uŋn- ... -pi
.
Enclitics
[
edit
]
Lakota has a number of
enclitic
particles
which follow the verb, many of which differ depending on whether the speaker is male or female.
Some enclitics indicate the aspect, mood, or number of the verb they follow. There are also various
interrogative
enclitics, which in addition to marking an utterance as a question show finer distinctions of meaning. For example, while
he
is the usual question-marking enclitic,
huŋwo
is used for
rhetorical questions
or in formal
oratory
, and the
dubitative
wa
functions somewhat like a
tag question
in English (Rood and Taylor 1996; Buchel 1983). (See also the section below on men and women's speech.)
Men's and women's speech
[
edit
]
A small number of enclitics (approximately eight) differ in form based on the gender of the speaker.
Yelo
(men)
ye
(women) mark mild assertions.
K?to
(women only according to most sources) marks strong assertion.
Yo
(men) and
ye
(women) mark neutral commands,
yet?o
(men) and
nit?o
(women) mark familiar, and
ye
(both men and women) and
na
mark requests.
He
is used by both genders to mark direct questions, but men also use
h?wo
in more formal situations.
So
(men) and
se
(women) mark
dubitative
questions (where the person being asked is not assumed to know the answer).
While many
native speakers
and
linguists
agree that certain enclitics are associated with particular
genders
, such usage may not be exclusive. That is, individual men sometimes use enclitics associated with women, and vice versa (Trechter 1999).
Examples of enclitic usage
Enclitic
|
Meaning
|
Example
[27]
|
Translation
|
hAŋ
|
continuous
|
ya-he
|
"was going"
|
pi
|
plural
|
iyayapi
|
"they left"
|
la
|
diminutive
|
zaptaŋla
|
"only five"
|
kA
|
attenuative
|
wa?teke
|
"somewhat good"
|
ktA
|
irrealis
|
uŋyiŋ kte
|
"you and I will go" (future)
|
?ni
|
negative
|
hiyu ?ni
|
"he/she/it did not come out"
|
s’a
|
repeating
|
eyapi s’a
|
"they often say"
|
se?A
|
conjecture
|
u kte se?e
|
"he might come"
|
yelo
|
assertion (masc)
|
ble lo
|
"I went there (I assert)"
|
ye
|
assertion (fem)
|
hi ye
|
"he came (I assert)"
|
he
|
interrogative
|
Taku k?oyakip?a he?
|
"What do you fear?"
|
huŋwo
|
interrogative (masc. formal)
|
Tokhiya la huŋwo?
|
"Where are you going?"
|
huŋwe
|
interrogative (fem. formal, obsolete)
|
He takula huŋwe?
|
"What is this little thing?"
|
waŋ
|
dubitative question
|
se?a waŋ
|
"can it be as it seems?"
|
?khe
|
evidential
|
ya-ha ?khe
|
"he was going, I understand"
|
keye
|
evidential (hearsay)
|
yapi keye
|
"they went, they say"
|
Ablaut
[
edit
]
- All examples are taken from the
New Lakota Dictionary
.
The term "
ablaut
" refers to the tendency of some words to change their final vowel in certain situations. Compare these sentences.
- ?uŋka kiŋ sapa ?ha waŋblake.
- ?uŋka kiŋ sape.
- ?uŋka kiŋ sapiŋ na t?aŋka.
The last vowel in the word "
SapA
" changed each time. This vowel change is called "ablaut". Words which undergo this change are referred to as A-words, since, in dictionary citations, they are written ending in either -A or -Aŋ. These words are never written with a final capital letter in actual texts. Derivatives of these words generally take the ablaut as well, however there are exceptions.
There are three forms for ablauted words:
-a/-aŋ
,
-e
,
-iŋ
. These are referred to as a/aŋ-ablaut, e-ablaut, and iŋ-ablaut respectively. Some words are ablauted by some and not others, like "gray"
hota
or
hotA
. Ablaut always depends on what word follows the ablauted word.
A/aŋ-ablaut
[
edit
]
This is the basic form of the word, and is used everywhere in which the other forms are not utilized.
E-ablaut
[
edit
]
There are two cases in which e-ablaut is used.
- Last word in the sentence
- Followed by a word which triggers e-ablaut
1. Last word in sentence
[
edit
]
- Examples
- He?hiya ye
He went there. (e-ablaut of the verb
yA
)
- Yute
She ate it. (e-ablaut of the verb
yutA
)
- Thipi kiŋ paha akaŋl he.
The house stands on a cliff. (e-ablaut of the verb
hAŋ
)
2. Followed by a word which triggers e-ablaut
[
edit
]
There are three classes of words which trigger e-ablaut
- various enclitics, such as
??a, ??iŋ, iŋ?heye, ka?ha?, kilo, k?to, ktok, lak?a, -la, la?, la??aka, lo, se?A, sekse, s’ele?he?a, so, s’a, s’e, ?aŋ, ?ni, uŋ?to
- some conjunctions and articles, such as
kiŋ, kiŋhaŋ, k’ea?, k’uŋ, ehaŋtaŋ?
- some auxiliary verbs, such as
kapiŋ, kini?a (kinil), lakA (la), kuŋzA, phi?a, ?i, wa?hiŋ, -yA, -khiyA
- Examples
- ?kate ?ni.
He did not play. (enclitic)
- ?kate s’a.
He plays often. (enclitic)
- ?kate lo.
He plays. (enclitic (marking assertion))
- Ok?ate haŋtaŋ...
If it is hot... (conjunctive)
- Sape kiŋ
The black one (definite article)
- Gle kuŋze.
He pretended to go home. (auxiliary verb)
- Yatke-phi?a.
It is drinkable. (auxiliary verb)
Iŋ-ablaut
[
edit
]
The
iŋ
-ablaut (pronounced
i
by some) occurs only before the following words:
- ktA
(irrealis enclitic)
- yet?o
(familiar command enclitic)
- na, nahaŋ
(and)
- naiŋ?
(or, and or)
- ye
(polite request or entreaty enclitic)
- Examples
- Waŋyaŋkiŋ yet?o.
Take a look at this, real quick.
- Yiŋ kte.
She will go.
- Skuyiŋ na wa?te.
It was sweet and good.
- Waŋyaŋkiŋ ye.
Please, look at it.
Phrases
[
edit
]
"
Hau k?ola
", literally "Hello, friend", is the most common greeting, and was transformed into the generic motion picture American Indian "
How
!", just as the traditional feathered headdress of the Teton was "given" to all movie Indians. As
hau
is the only word in Lakota which contains a
diphthong
,
/au/
, it may be a loanword from a non-Siouan language.
[8]
Language revitalization efforts
[
edit
]
Assimilating Indigenous peoples into the expanding American society of the late 19th and early 20th centuries depended on suppression or full eradication of each tribe's unique language as the central aspect of its culture.
Indian residential schools
in
the US and Canada
that separated Indigenous children from their parents and relatives enforced this assimilation process with beatings and other forms of violence for speaking tribal languages(Powers).
[
full citation needed
]
The Lakota language survived this suppression. "Lakota persisted through the recognized natural immersion afforded by daily conversation in the home, the community at reservation-wide events, even in texts written in the form of letters to family and friends. people demonstrated their cultural resilience through the positive application of spoken and written Lakota." (Powers)
[
full citation needed
]
Even so, employment opportunities were based on speaking English; a Lakota who was bilingual or spoke only English was more likely to be hired.
[5]
In 1967, the
Red Cloud Indian School
at
Pine Ridge
began offering Lakota language classes. This was over two decades before the
Native American Languages Act of 1990
.
[28]
In the mid-1970s the Rosebud Reservation established their Lakota Language and Culture department at the
Sinte Gleska University
under the chairmanship of Ben Black Bear, Jr., who employed textbooks and orthography developed by the Colorado University Lakota Project (CULP). A few years later Black Bear was replaced as a chair of the department by
Albert White Hat
, who discontinued the use of the Colorado University textbooks. In 1992 White Hat published a textbook with his own orthography, for use at all levels of language learning on Rosebud. Sinte Gleska University now uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat.
[15]
In 2002 Sinte Gleska University rejected the Lakota Language Consortium invitation to support their organization. Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery spoke to the
Lakota Journal
, stating, "The Lakota Language Consortium has created the misleading impression that Sinte Gleska University is one of the schools that supports their organization," and that the LLC had circulated a document to this effect with other misleading information about the state of the language, "The (LLC) documentation strongly implies that there are no fluent speakers younger than the elder age group and the presentation implies that the Lakota cannot deal with the problem themselves; therefore outside help must be brought in to lead the program. This appears to us as a sugar coated attack on sovereignty".
[14]
In 2008, the Red Cloud School at Pine Ridge launched their Lakota language curriculum for K-12 students.
[28]
In November 2012, the incoming president of the Oglala Sioux Tribe, Bryan Brewer, announced that he intended "to lead a Lakota Language Revitalization Initiative that will focus on the creation and operation of Lakota language immersion schools and identifying all fluent Lakota speakers."
[29]
A Lakota language immersion daycare center is scheduled to open at
Pine Ridge
.
[30]
Also in 2012, Lakota
immersion classes
were provided for children in an experimental program at
Sitting Bull College
on the
Standing Rock Reservation
, where children speak only Lakota for their first year.
[31]
Tom Red Bird is a Lakota teacher at the program who grew up on the Cheyenne River Reservation. He believes in the importance of teaching the language to younger generations as this would close the gap in the ages of speakers.
[32]
In 2014, it is estimated that about five percent of children age four to six on
Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
speak Lakota.
[33]
Language Revitalization efforts continued to be strengthened by the establishment of several independent, grassroots Lakota language immersion schools and camps, such as those at the
Dakota Access Pipeline protests
camps at
Standing Rock
in 2016.
[34]
On May 3, 2022, the
Standing Rock Sioux
Tribal Council passed Resolution Number 150-22, which, along with banishing the LLC, contains provisions to protect the Nation's
intellectual property rights
and
data sovereignty
.
[23]
[24]
It reclaimed copyrights over all language materials created by the consortium and called for their immediate return, to be placed in the care of “the first-language speakers and knowledge-keepers in our communities."
[23]
[24]
Lakota Language Education Program (LLEAP)
[
edit
]
In 2011, Sitting Bull College (Fort Yates, North Dakota, Standing Rock) and the University of South Dakota began degree programs to create effective Lakota language teachers. By earning a Bachelor of Arts in education at the University of South Dakota or a Bachelor of Science in education at Sitting Bull College, students can major in "Lakota Language Teaching and Learning" as part of the Lakota Language Education Action Program, or LLEAP.
LLEAP is a four-year program designed to create at least 30 new Lakota language teachers by 2014, and was funded by $2.4 million in grants from the U.S. Department of Education. At the end of the initial phase, SBC and USD will permanently offer the Lakota Language Teaching and Learning degree as part of their regular undergraduate Education curriculum. The current LLEAP students' tuition and expenses are covered by the grant from the U.S. Department of Education. LLEAP is the first program of its kind, offering courses to create effective teachers in order to save a Native American language from going extinct, and potentially educate the 120,000 prospective Lakota speakers in the 21st century.
[35]
Government support
[
edit
]
In 1990, Senator
Daniel Inouye
(D-HI) sponsored the
Native American Languages Act
in order to preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedoms of Native people in America to practice, develop and conduct business in their native language. This law, which took effect on October 30, 1990, reversed over 200 years of American policy that would have otherwise eliminated the indigenous languages of the United States. This legislation gave support to tribal efforts to fund language education programs.
[36]
Self-study external links
[
edit
]
Some resources exist for self-study of Lakota by a person with no or limited access to native speakers. Here is a collection of selected resources currently available:
Additional print and electronic materials have been created by the immersion program on Pine Ridge.
[
examples needed
]
- Lakota: A Language Course for Beginners
by Oglala Lakota College (
ISBN
0-88432-609-8
) (with companion 15 CDs/Tapes) (high school/college level)
- Reading and Writing the Lakota Language
by Albert White Hat Sr. (
ISBN
0-87480-572-4
) (with companion 2 tapes) (high school/college level)
- University of Colorado
Lakhota Project:
Beginning Lakhota
, vol. 1 & 2 (with companion tapes),
Elementary Bilingual Dictionary
and
Graded Readings
, (high school/college level)
- Lakota Dictionary: Lakota-English/English-Lakota, New Comprehensive Edition
by Eugene Buechel, S.J. & Paul Manhart (
ISBN
0-8032-6199-3
)
- English-Lakota Dictionary
by Bruce Ingham, RoutledgeCurzon,
ISBN
0-7007-1378-6
- A Grammar of Lakota
by Eugene Buechel, S.J. (
OCLC
4609002
; professional level)
- The article by Rood & Taylor, in
[8]
(professional level)
- Dakota Texts
by Ella Deloria (a bilingual, interlinear collection of folktales and folk narratives, plus commentaries). (University of Nebraska Press,
ISBN
0-8032-6660-X
; professional level) (Note: the University of South Dakota edition is monolingual, with only the English renditions.)
- A "Lakota Toddler" app designed for children ages 2?9 is available for the
iPhone
.
[37]
- Matho Waunsila Tiwahe: The Lakota Berenstain Bears
. DVD of 20 episodes of The Berenstain Bears, dubbed in Lakota with fluent Native speakers.
Lakota influences in English
[
edit
]
Just as people from different regions of countries have accents, Lakota who speak English have some distinct speech patterns. These patterns are displayed in their grammatical sequences and can be heard through some phonological differences. These unique characteristics are also observed in Lakota youth, even those who only learned English.
[38]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
Lakota
at
Ethnologue
(25th ed., 2022)
- ^
"Ella Cara Deloria"
.
Association for Women in Science
. Association for Women in Science
. Retrieved
22 February
2024
.
- ^
"Winged Messenger Nations: Birds in American Indian Oral Tradition: Albert White Hat Sr. & Francis Cut"
.
The Winged Messenger Project
. The Winged Messenger Project
. Retrieved
22 February
2024
.
- ^
Sneve, Paul (2013). "Anamnesis in the Lakota Language and Lakota Concepts of Time and Matter".
Anglican Theological Review
.
95
(3): 487?493.
- ^
a
b
Andrews, Thomas G (2002). "Turning the Tables on Assimilation: Oglala Lakotas and the Pine Ridge Day Schools 1889?1920s".
Western Historical Quarterly
.
33
(4): 407?430.
doi
:
10.2307/4144766
.
JSTOR
4144766
.
- ^
Walker, J.R.; DeMallie, R.J.; Jahner, E. (1980).
Lakota Belief and Ritual
. Bison books. U of Nebraska Press. p. 106.
ISBN
978-0-8032-9867-5
. Retrieved
December 18,
2021
.
- ^
Elementary Bilingual Dictionary English?Lakhota Lakhota?English
(1976) CU Lakhota Project University of Colorado
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Rood, David S., and Taylor, Allan R. (1996).
Sketch of Lakhota, a Siouan Language, Part I
. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 17 (Languages), pp. 440?482.
- ^
a
b
(2004).
Lakota letters and sounds
.
- ^
Mithun, Marianne (2007).
The Languages of Native North America
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 33.
- ^
"Language Materials Project: Lakota"
. UCLA. Archived from
the original
on 30 December 2010
. Retrieved
23 December
2010
.
- ^
Powers, William K. (1990). "Comments on the Politics of Orthography".
American Anthropologist
.
92
(2): 496?498.
doi
:
10.1525/aa.1990.92.2.02a00190
.
JSTOR
680162
.
- ^
Palmer, 2
- ^
a
b
c
d
Thunder Hawk, Cal (Aug 30, 2002).
"Sinte Gleska University to reject Lakota Language Consortium membership"
.
Lakota Journal - Around Lakota Country
. Archived from
the original
on 2021-12-15
. Retrieved
2021-12-15
.
Emery said, based on their review of "Lakota Language Revitalization: General Overview," a document published by the LLC and widely circulated in Lakota country by LLC this spring, Lakota Studies will not recommend SGU participation in the consortium. He continued, "The presentation suggests that a goal for the program is standardization of the language. We feel that this approach will cause problems because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be the approach of the organization, then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process."
- ^
a
b
Arlene B. Hirschfelder (1995).
Native Heritage: Personal Accounts by American Indians, 1790 to the Present
. VNR AG.
ISBN
978-0-02-860412-1
.
- ^
John, Sonja (2018). "Orality Overwritten: Power Relations in Textualization". In Fink, Sebastian; Lang, Martin; Schretter, Manfred (eds.).
Mehrsprachigkeit. Vom Alten Orient bis zum Esperanto
(PDF)
. Zaphon, Munster www.zaphon.de. p. 98.
ISBN
978-3-96327-004-8
.
In a next step, the Rosebud Sioux Tribe adopted Tribal Resolution No. 2012?343, on December 13, 2012, declaring Albert White Hat's Lakota orthography to be the standard on the Rosebud reservation: "THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED, the Rosebud Sioux Tribe hereby adopts the Official Rosebud Sioux Tribe Lakota Language Orthography recommended by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe Education Department." The tribe thus banned the LLC and its "Czech orthography" from the reservation and its educational system.
- ^
a
b
c
John, Sonja (2018). "Orality Overwritten: Power Relations in Textualization". In Fink, Sebastian; Lang, Martin; Schretter, Manfred (eds.).
Mehrsprachigkeit. Vom Alten Orient bis zum Esperanto
(PDF)
. Zaphon, Munster www.zaphon.de. pp. 86?87.
ISBN
978-3-96327-004-8
.
- ^
John, Sonja (2018). "Orality Overwritten: Power Relations in Textualization". In Fink, Sebastian; Lang, Martin; Schretter, Manfred (eds.).
Mehrsprachigkeit. Vom Alten Orient bis zum Esperanto
(PDF)
. Zaphon, Munster www.zaphon.de. p. 73.
ISBN
978-3-96327-004-8
.
- ^
a
b
John, Sonja (2018). "Orality Overwritten: Power Relations in Textualization". In Fink, Sebastian; Lang, Martin; Schretter, Manfred (eds.).
Mehrsprachigkeit. Vom Alten Orient bis zum Esperanto
(PDF)
. Zaphon, Munster www.zaphon.de. pp. 97?98.
ISBN
978-3-96327-004-8
.
In addition the residential schools aimed at separating children from the influence of their parents in order to educate them in the non-Native way.
WHEREAS, issues of non-native American sources entering the reservation and school systems with their own welfare in mind; and their entities are utilizing individuals' names without consent for the sake of contributors lists to mislead the public and further receive support of unsuspecting school districts, school boards, or programs
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that any individual, entity, or any other source that wishes to research or document any information regarding the Lakota Language, History, and Culture must first go through the approval of the Rosebud Sioux Tribal Council and Administration or designated entity such as Education Committee, RST Tribal Education, local Collaborations Groups, or Advisory Committee.
- ^
a
b
c
Hauff, Tasha.
"Beyond Colors, Numbers and Animals"
.
JSTOR
. University of Minnesota Press
. Retrieved
December 16,
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Simmons-Ritchie, Daniel.
"Red Cloud School Fights to Save Lakota Language"
.
Native Times
. Rapid City Journal
. Retrieved
December 16,
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Rust, Jody (8 August 2018).
"Immersion School Seeks to spark everyday use of Lakota language and preserve cultural identity"
.
West River Eagle
. Retrieved
December 16,
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
Brewer, Graham Lee (3 June 2022).
"Lakota elders helped a white man preserve their language. Then he tried to sell it back to them"
.
NBC News
. Retrieved
3 June
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
Standing Rock Tribal Council (3 June 2022).
"Standing Rock banishment resolution"
.
NBC News
. Retrieved
3 June
2022
.
- ^
Cho, Taehong. "Some phonological and phonetic aspects of stress and intonation in Lakhota: a preliminary report", Published as a PDF at :
humnet.ucla.edu "Lakhota"
, Linguistics, UCLA
- ^
"Ten studies in the alphabet of the Lakota language"
.
Lakota Times
. 13 November 2008.
- ^
Deloria, Ella (1932).
Dakota Texts
. New York: G.E. Stechert.
- ^
a
b
"Celebrating 125 Years"
.
Red Cloud Country
. Spring 2013
. Retrieved
2021-12-17
.
Note: Prior to 1969, the school was known as Holy Rosary.
- ^
Cook, Andrea (2012-11-16).
"Brewer pledges to preserve Lakota language"
. Retrieved
2012-11-20
.
- ^
Aaron Moselle (November 2012).
"Chestnut Hill native looks to revitalize "eroded" American Indian language"
.
NewsWorks, WHYY
. Archived from
the original
on 2013-05-18
. Retrieved
2012-11-29
.
- ^
Donovan, Lauren (2012-11-11).
"Learning Lakota, one word at a time"
.
Bismarck Tribune
. Bismarck, ND
. Retrieved
2012-11-20
.
- ^
DONOVAN, L (2012). "Tribal College Program Teaches Lakota Language to Youngsters".
Community College Week
.
25
(9): 10.
- ^
Doering, Christopher (2014-06-19).
"Indians press for funds to teach Native languages"
.
Argus Leader
. Retrieved
2014-06-28
.
- ^
Ecoffey, Brandon (2016-09-01).
"School Opens In Protector Camp"
. Retrieved
2021-12-10
.
- ^
Campbell, Kimberlee (2011). "Sitting Bull Offers New Lakota Curriculum".
Tribal College Journal
.
22
(3): 69?70.
- ^
Barringer, Felicity (8 January 1991).
"Faded but Vibrant, Indian Languages Struggle to Keep Their Voices Alive"
.
The New York Times
. Retrieved
2013-10-25
.
- ^
"App Shopper: Lakota Toddler (Education)"
. Retrieved
2012-09-12
.
- ^
Flanigan, Olson.
"Language Variation Among Native Americans: Observations of Lakota English"
.
Journal of English Linguistics
. Retrieved
2013-10-25
.
References
[
edit
]
- Palmer, Jessica Dawn.
The Dakota Peoples: A History of Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota through 1863.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008.
ISBN
978-0-7864-3177-9
.
- Rood, David S. and Allan R. Taylor. (1996).
Sketch of Lakhota, a Siouan Language
.
Handbook of North American Indians
, Vol. 17 (Languages), pp. 440?482. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Online version
.
- Pustet, Regina (2013).
"Prototype Effects in Discourse and the Synonymy Issue: Two Lakota Postpositions"
.
Cognitive Linguistics
.
14
(4): 349?78.
doi
:
10.1515/cogl.2003.014
.
- Powers, William K (2009).
"Saving Lakota: Commentary on Language Revitalization"
.
American Indian Culture & Research Journal
.
33
(4): 139?49.
doi
:
10.17953/aicr.33.4.2832x77334756478
.
- Henne, Richard B. "Verbal Artistry: A Case for Education."
ANTHROPOLOGY & EDUCATION QUARTERLY
no. 4 (2009): 331?349.
- Sneve, Paul (2013). "Anamnesis in the Lakota Language and Lakota Concepts of Time and Matter".
Anglican Theological Review
.
95
(3): 487?493.
- McGinnis, Anthony R (2012). "When Courage Was Not Enough: Plains Indians at War with the United States Army".
Journal of Military History
.
76
(2): 455?473.
- Andrews, Thomas G (2002). "Turning the Tables on Assimilation: Oglala Lakotas and the Pine Ridge Day Schools, 1889-1920s".
Western Historical Quarterly
.
33
(4): 407?430.
doi
:
10.2307/4144766
.
JSTOR
4144766
.
- Pass, Susan (2009). "Teaching Respect for Diversity: The Oglala Lakota".
Social Studies
.
100
(5): 212?217.
doi
:
10.1080/00377990903221996
.
S2CID
144704897
.
- Campbell, Kimberlee (2011). "Sitting Bull Offers New Lakota Curriculum".
Tribal College Journal
.
22
(3): 69?70.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Buechel, Eugene (1983).
A Dictionary of Teton Sioux
. Pine Ridge, SD: Red Cloud Indian School.
- DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001). "Sioux until 1850". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.),
Handbook of North American Indians
: Plains
(Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 718?760). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
ISBN
0-16-050400-7
.
- de Reuse, Willem J. (1987).
"One hundred years of Lakota linguistics (1887-1987)"
.
Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics
.
12
: 13?42.
doi
:
10.17161/KWPL.1808.509
.
hdl
:
1808/509
.
- de Reuse, Willem J. (1990).
"A supplementary bibliography of Lakota languages and linguistics (1887-1990)"
.
Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics
.
15
(2): 146?165.
doi
:
10.17161/KWPL.1808.441
.
hdl
:
1808/441
.
- Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). "The Siouan languages". In
Handbook of North American Indians: Plains
(Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94?114). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
- Trechter, Sarah (1999). "Contextualizing the Exotic Few: Gender Dichotomies in Lakhota". In Bucholtz, M.; Liang, A. C.; Sutton, L. (eds.).
Reinventing Identities
. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 101?122.
ISBN
0-19-512629-7
.
External links
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