1st president of Macedonia
Kiro Gligorov
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![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_03_%2828-01-1993%29.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_03_%2828-01-1993%29.jpg) Gligorov in 1993
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In office
27 January 1991 ? 19 November 1999
|
Prime Minister
| Nikola Kljusev
Branko Crvenkovski
Ljub?o Georgievski
|
---|
Vice President
| Ljub?o Georgievski (1991)
[1]
[a]
|
---|
Preceded by
| Vladimir Mitkov (as President of the SR Macedonia)
|
---|
Succeeded by
| Boris Trajkovski
|
---|
|
In office
15 May 1974 ? 15 May 1978
|
Preceded by
| Mijalko Todorovi?
|
---|
Succeeded by
| Dragoslav Markovi?
|
---|
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|
Born
| (
1917-05-03
)
3 May 1917
?tip
, Bulgarian-occupied Serbia
|
---|
Died
| 1 January 2012
(2012-01-01)
(aged 94)
Skopje
, Macedonia
|
---|
Nationality
| Yugoslav/Bulgarian/Macedonian
|
---|
Political party
| |
---|
Spouse
|
Nada Misheva
(
m.
1943; died 2009)
|
---|
Children
| 3, including
Vladimir
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Signature
| ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Kiro_Gligorov_signature.svg/128px-Kiro_Gligorov_signature.svg.png) |
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Kiro Gligorov
(
Macedonian
:
Киро Глигоров
,
pronounced
[?kir?
??li??r?f]
ⓘ
; 3 May 1917 ? 1 January 2012) was a
Macedonian
politician who served as the first
president of the Republic of Macedonia
(now North Macedonia) from 1991 to 1999. He was born and raised in ?tip, where he was also educated. He continued his education in Skopje and graduated in law in Belgrade. During
World War II in Yugoslav Macedonia
, he worked as a lawyer and participated in the partisan resistance. By the end of the war, he was an organiser of the
Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia
, the predecessor of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia as a federal Yugoslav state.
After the war, he served in various positions in Yugoslavia. For decades, he was a high-ranking official and an economist there. Prior to the breakup of Yugoslavia, Gligorov was an adviser for
Ante Markovi?
's market reform plan. Gligorov later played a pivotal role in Macedonia's peaceful secession from Yugoslavia and its international recognition. In 1995, he survived an assassination attempt, of which the perpetrators have not been found. For his role in its independence and political development, international researchers and the Macedonian public regard him as the father of the Macedonian state.
[3]
[4]
[5]
Early life
[
edit
]
Gligorov (top right) with other members of the General Staff of the
Macedonian Partisans
on
Kozjak
,
c.
1944
Kiro Gligorov
[b]
was born in
?tip
on 3 May 1917,
[9]
[10]
in the
Bulgarian occupation zone
of
Serbia
(now
North Macedonia
) during
World War I
,
[11]
where he received his initial education. According to the news source
Novinite
, his father was a craftsman, and his mother was a housewife.
[6]
Gligorov completed his secondary education in
Skopje
and later graduated from the
University of Belgrade
's
Law School
.
[12]
[13]
Before World War II, he participated in the Macedonian communist student movement.
[10]
When he was twenty, he was arrested by the Royal Yugoslav authorities for his political opposition to the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
, but was released afterwards.
[14]
After the
defeat of Yugoslavia by Axis forces
in 1941, Gligorov returned to Skopje (then
annexed by Bulgaria
), where he worked as a lawyer until 1943. In 1942, Gligorov was arrested by Bulgarian police on the accusation that he was a pro-Serbian communist.
[15]
He was released on the orders of Skopje Mayor
Spiro Kitinchev
, who guaranteed that he was a trustworthy Bulgarian citizen, of ethnic Bulgarian origin.
[6]
During
World War II in Yugoslav Macedonia
, he joined the partisans and participated in the resistance.
[8]
[16]
[17]
In 1943, he became a member of the
Action National Liberation Committee
[
mk
]
(ANOK), a group of the
Communist Party of Macedonia
which advocated for a
United Macedonia
.
[18]
[19]
Along with other communist activists and activists of the group, he saw the
Macedonian Question
as a pan-Balkan issue and its solution in the creation of a
Balkan Federation
.
[19]
[20]
Afterwards he became a member of the
League of Communists of Yugoslavia
(LCY),
Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia
(AVNOJ) and
Antifascist Assembly of the National Liberation of Macedonia
(ASNOM).
[3]
[13]
[16]
In ASNOM, he served as a secretary of the Initiative committee for its organisation and a finance commissioner in its
presidium
.
[21]
[3]
On 2 August 1944, he took part in the first session of ASNOM as a delegate.
[10]
Politics
[
edit
]
Yugoslavia
[
edit
]
Gligorov in 1965
After World War II, Gligorov moved to
Belgrade
.
[14]
Between 1945 and 1947, he held the office of Assistant Secretary General of the Presidency of the Government of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. He then served as Assistant Minister of Finance from 1947 to 1952.
[18]
After this year, he held several positions: Assistant Chairman of the Economic Council of the Government of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia from 1952 to 1953, Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Economic Planning from 1953 to 1955, and Secretary of Economy - Coordinator in the Federal Government in 1956.
[18]
As a finance minister, he advanced early Yugoslav economic reform.
[22]
Gligorov supervised the shift from a
centrally planned
economy to the enduring Yugoslav
worker's councils
.
Managers
and
banks
, rather than the state, would ensure
budgetary discipline
, even if this might bring the former into conflict with the workers they were supposed to represent.
Under his predecessor's administration, companies had found themselves starved for
capital
, and misappropriated
social insurance
funds to purchase necessary improvements. Gligorov hoped that the shift to a market system would temporarily reduce consumption of
wage goods
to a sustainable level, while also stimulating investment into their production. Cuts in public expenditures attempted to release
working capital
to manufacturers, and a devalued
Yugoslav dinar
should
improve their export competitiveness
.
[24]
He and fellow Yugoslav politician
Boris Kidri?
established
Ekonomska politika
(Economic policy) in 1952, a Belgrade weekly newspaper, with the aim of promoting
socialist market economy
as an alternative to
Soviet-style centrally planned economy
.
[25]
The newspaper became very influential, particularly among large Yugoslav firms, who were among its subscribers and supporters.
[25]
In the 1960s, he had the reputation of being a liberal economist and politician who wanted to implement market-oriented reforms.
[26]
[27]
Along with another
Macedonian
politician
Krste Crvenkovski
, he spoke out in favour of
decentralisation
.
[26]
[28]
[29]
He thought that republican control over federal policy making was necessary.
[28]
Gligorov was the
Finance Minister of Yugoslavia
from 1962 to 1967. In 1965, he was the co-creator of a
marketisation
program which was never implemented,
[3]
because the plan was considered too liberal by Yugoslav leader
Josip Broz Tito
.
[27]
[30]
In this period, he was also a close collaborator of Tito.
[31]
He and his son
Vladimir Gligorov
in the 1970s published articles in the newspaper
Ekonomska politika
along with other reform-oriented economists, journalists, managers, and politicians such as Dragi?a Bo?kovi?,
Ljubomir Mad?ar
[
sr
]
,
Ante Markovi?
,
Jo?e Mencinger
,
Stjepan Mesi?
, Milutin Mitrovi?,
Marko Nikezi?
,
Latinka Perovi?
,
?arko Puhovski
,
Dragan Veselinov
, and
Veselin Vukoti?
, most of whom influenced Yugoslav economic and political thinking.
[25]
Gligorov held various other high-ranking positions in the political establishment of the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
, including as a member of both the Yugoslav
state presidency
and the
party presidency
(for the
9th
and
10th electoral terms
),
[32]
as well as President of the Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 15 May 1974 to 15 May 1978.
[9]
In the 1980s, Gligorov was a critic of the subjective causes of the Yugoslav economic difficulties.
[33]
He opined that the difficulties stemmed from "suppressing market laws and operating in a subjectivist way in which social and economic goals and plans were formulated not on the basis of our realistic possibilities, but rather on what our Socialist society would like to achieve." In 1989, he was an adviser for
Ante Markovi?
's economic reform plan, which consisted of
economic liberalisation
,
privatisation
, the devaluation of the Yugoslav dinar and its pegging to the
German mark
, making it convertible.
[34]
[35]
[36]
Macedonia
[
edit
]
He returned to Skopje in 1989.
[7]
In February 1990, he joined the Macedonian Forum for Preparation of a Macedonian National Program.
[18]
Gligorov actively participated in the work of this forum, along with
Vladimir Gligorov
,
[37]
which discussed the status of the Yugoslav Federation and the
Socialist Republic of Macedonia
. Following the promulgation of the Declaration of Sovereignty of the State on 25 January 1991 and an initiative by a group of prominent liberal politicians and intellectuals called the "Young Lions",
[38]
Gligorov was elected as the president of SR Macedonia by a large majority in the
Macedonian Assembly
on 27 January, succeeding Vladimir Mitkov.
[39]
[40]
[34]
Ljub?o Georgievski
, then the leader of VMRO-DPMNE, was elected to serve as the
vice president of Macedonia
, but he resigned from that position on October 1991, complaining that he and his party were politically marginalised, despite being the largest political faction.
[1]
Gligorov dedicated himself to the realisation of a three-point plan: Yugoslavia's preservation through a peaceful resolution of the crisis; the creation of a parliamentary democracy with the adoption of a new constitution and the promotion of national minorities' rights.
[41]
On 7 March, he entrusted the mandate to
Nikola Kljusev
to form the first government.
[42]
In the same year, Gligorov along with
Alija Izetbegovi?
put forward the idea of a "Yugoslav confederation" (which was strongly supported by the international community),
[43]
but it was rejected by the other states of Yugoslavia.
[44]
[8]
Thus his policy of preserving Yugoslavia as a confederation failed.
[45]
When it became clear that Yugoslavia was being torn apart, Gligorov and the other leaders decided to initiate a
referendum for independence
on 8 September 1991.
[1]
Many citizens ended up opting for independence, although the referendum was also boycotted by many members of the ethnic Serb and Albanian communities in the country.
[1]
Under his rule, Macedonia became the only state which seceded from Yugoslavia peacefully.
[46]
After independence, he became the first President of the independent and sovereign Republic of Macedonia.
[47]
Afterwards, Gligorov worked towards gaining international recognition of Macedonia.
[48]
[49]
Domestically, Gligorov faced the challenge of finding a balance between two opposing political forces - the ethnic Macedonian Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization ? Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (
VMRO-DPMNE
) and the ethnic Albanian Party for Democratic Prosperity (
PDP
).
[50]
He tried to balance the exclusionary demands of the nationalists with the inclusionary demands of the ethnic Albanian parties.
[51]
Gligorov was of the opinion that Albanians, a substantial ethnic group in the country, would always have a share in the governing of Macedonia and he firmly supported power-sharing with them.
[52]
[1]
After Kljusev's government failed to secure international recognition in 1992, he asked Georgievski to form a new government, but he failed.
[10]
Gligorov then gave the mandate to
Branko Crvenkovski
, who formed a coalition government, which also included two ethnic Albanian parties such as Party for Democratic Prosperity and
National Democratic Party
. Under his monitoring, Crvenkovski and the leaders of the ethnic Albanian parties worked together to resolve issues that divided ethnic Macedonians and Albanians.
[10]
Economically, he was leading Macedonia towards full economic privatisation, while also trying to reach agreements with international financial institutions to receive funds for the economic transition.
[53]
In 1992, he successfully negotiated the withdrawal of the
Yugoslav People's Army
(JNA) from Macedonian soil.
[8]
Due to concerns of the
Yugoslav Wars
spilling over into Macedonia, he requested the presence of
UN peacekeepers
, which were deployed later.
[40]
As a result of the
Macedonia naming dispute
, the
Republic of Macedonia
was admitted into the United Nations under the reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." Gligorov delivered his first speech before the
General Assembly of the United Nations
on 7 April 1993.
[18]
In the
general election
, he was re-elected President of the Republic by a majority of votes, on 16 October 1994.
[54]
On 12 September 1995, he signed the Interim Accord for the normalization of relations with
Greece
at the
United Nations
Headquarters.
[39]
On 2 October, in Belgrade, he signed a recognition agreement with the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
. In 1998, Georgievski became the prime minister of Macedonia.
[40]
The election for Gligorov's successor took place only a few days before the end of his term. He served as the president until 19 November 1999 and was succeeded by
Boris Trajkovski
.
[6]
[14]
Following his presidency, he retired from politics.
[16]
Assassination attempt
[
edit
]
Gligorov's presidential car after the assassination attempt
On 3 October 1995, Gligorov was the target of a
car bomb
assassination attempt in
Skopje
. Disobeying instructions from his security advisers to sit in the back seat of his presidential car, he sat next to his driver.
[55]
While en route from his residence to his office, the car was blown up by an explosion from a parked vehicle, killing his driver and a passer-by, as well as injuring several other passers-by and his security officer. Gligorov was seriously injured and was immediately transported to the hospital.
[56]
[57]
[58]
The parked car contained an explosive which was activated remotely.
[59]
Two persons in their mid-twenties were arrested immediately after the incident.
[60]
An investigation into the assassination attempt was initiated and police experienced in terrorism investigations from Britain, United States, Greece and Germany also came to Macedonia to participate.
[55]
There have been no suspects determined and no progress has been made in the investigation.
[61]
However, there have been short-lived speculations as to who could be the culprits. Shortly after the bombing, the Minister of Internal Affairs
Ljubomir Fr?kovski
publicly claimed that "a powerful multinational company from a neighbouring country" was behind the assassination attempt,
[62]
with the Macedonian media pointing at the Bulgarian
Multigroup
and the Serbian Secret Service as possible suspects.
[62]
[63]
During a meeting between Multigroup head
Iliya Pavlov
and Gligorov in
Ohrid
, Pavlov assured Gligorov that his organisation was not involved.
[62]
Gligorov was incapacitated until 17 November 1995.
[64]
He became permanently blind in one eye and was facially scarred as a result of the attack.
[65]
Stojan Andov
was acting president during Gligorov's recuperation.
[3]
After several months of treatment, on 10 January 1996, Gligorov returned to his presidency.
[66]
Personal life and death
[
edit
]
Gligorov's grave at the Butel cemetery in Skopje.
In October 1943, Gligorov married Nada Misheva, who died in 2009.
[67]
[68]
They had one son and two daughters.
[68]
His son,
Vladimir Gligorov
, was one of the founders of the
Democratic Party
in
Serbia
.
[8]
After his retirement from politics, he authored several memoirs and founded the Kiro Gligorov Foundation to publish his works, maintain his archives and serve as a think tank with an interest in studying the development of multi-ethnic societies.
[69]
[70]
[68]
In an interview for
Vjesnik
on 22 March 2001, he dismissed the Albanian demands for greater rights by claiming that they already had sufficient rights, as well as the need for the Albanian language to be declared an official language in areas where few Albanians live. He also supported a military solution to the
insurgency in Macedonia
.
[71]
[72]
From 2004 to 2005, he was a member of the international commission on the Balkans, headed by former Italian prime minister
Giuliano Amato
.
[8]
[73]
In response to Macedonian political and diaspora organizations' claims of direct descent to
Alexander the Great
,
[7]
Gligorov stated several times that the ethnic
Macedonians
are unrelated to the
ancient Macedonians
, as well as that they are a
South Slavic people
.
[74]
In an interview with the
Toronto Star
on 15 March 1992, he said: "We are Macedonians but we are Slav Macedonians. That's who we are! We have no connection to Alexander the Great and his Macedonia. The ancient Macedonians no longer exist, they had disappeared from history long time ago. Our ancestors came here in the 5th and 6th century (AD)."
[75]
[38]
Among his associates and international researchers, he earned the nickname "the Fox" due to his political acumen and diplomatic skill.
[17]
[54]
[76]
International researchers also saw him as a
moderate politician
.
[77]
[78]
[79]
Kiro Gligorov was the oldest Macedonian political official.
[70]
On November 1999, when his second presidential term ended, he was 82 years old. Gligorov died at the age of 94 on 1 January 2012, in his sleep.
[80]
[69]
At his own request, the funeral was private with only his closest family in attendance.
[81]
Some high-ranking officials and academics, such as then Macedonian president
Gjorge Ivanov
and
Chief of General Staff
Goran?o Koteski
, came to pay their respects beforehand.
[82]
He was buried in
Butel Municipality
,
Skopje
.
[82]
Memoirs
[
edit
]
- Македони?а е сe што имаме
(
Makedonija e se ?to imame
; English:
Macedonia is all we have
; 2000)
[70]
- Атентат - ден потоа
(
Atentat - den potoa
; English:
Assassination - the day after
; 2002)
[70]
- Виорни времи?а, Република Македони?а ? реалност на Балканот
(
Viorni vreminja, Republika Makedonija ? realnost na Balkanot
; English:
Stormy times, Republic of Macedonia ? a reality in the Balkans
; 2004)
[70]
- Сите ?угословенски (стопански) реформи
(
Site jugoslovenski (stopanski) reformi
; English:
All Yugoslav (economic) reforms
; 2006)
[70]
Honours and legacy
[
edit
]
Gligorov won numerous international awards and recognitions for his successful, constructive management and regulation of the international relations of the Macedonian state.
[18]
Following a speech at the
University of Pittsburgh
in the United States, he was awarded an honorary doctorate on 21 September 1997. He was awarded the
Mediterranean Peace Prize
on 5 January 1998 in
Naples
.
[83]
[18]
In 2005, he became the first person to be awarded with the Republic of Macedonia's highest honour; the Order of the Republic of Macedonia.
[69]
In 2011, he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award from the United Macedonian Diaspora.
[84]
Other honours Gligorov received include:
[66]
In 2017, he was posthumously honoured with the Order "Saint Nicholas" (St. Nikola) by the
Municipality of ?tip
.
[87]
[88]
In Skopje, one of the boulevards bears his name.
[89]
A statue of him is present on the
Monument to the Presidium of ASNOM
[
mk
]
.
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Ljub?o Georgievski was Macedonia's only vice president in 1991.
- ^
According to the news sources
Novinite
and
The Independent
, his birth surname was Panchev.
[6]
[7]
During the Serbian rule of Vardar Macedonia, his surname was allegedly Grigorovi? or Gligorovi?. Later his surname was changed to Gligorov or Grigorov, but during the Bulgarian rule of Vardar Macedonia in World War II, he was known as Kiril Blagoev Grigorov.
[8]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Robert Bideleux; Ian Jeffries (24 January 2007).
The Balkans: A Post-Communist History
. Routledge. p. 412.
ISBN
9781134583287
.
- ^
Sabrina P. Ramet; Christine Hassenstab; Ola Listhaug, eds. (2017).
Building Democracy in the Yugoslav Successor States: Accomplishments, Setbacks, and Challenges since 1990
. Cambridge University Press. p. 290.
ISBN
1107180740
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Dawisha, Karen; Parrott, Bruce, eds. (1997).
Politics, Power and the Struggle for Democracy in South-East Europe
. Cambridge University Press. pp. 246?247.
ISBN
9780521597333
.
- ^
"Ден на жалост - Македони?а ?е се прости од претседателот Глигоров"
.
Deutsche Welle
(in Macedonian). 3 January 2012.
Archived
from the original on 9 January 2018
. Retrieved
23 August
2023
.
- ^
P. H. Liotta (2001).
Dismembering the State: The Death of Yugoslavia and why it Matters
. Lexington Books. p. 207.
ISBN
9780739102121
.
Indeed, of all the presidents of the former republics now become independent states, Gligorov could be more closely identified as the "father" of a nation than any other potential claimant.
- ^
a
b
c
d
"Late Macedonian President Gligorov Was 'Certified' Bulgarian"
.
Novinite.com
. 3 January 2012.
Archived
from the original on 24 June 2021.
- ^
a
b
c
Constantine Buhayer (9 January 2012).
"Kiro Gligorov: President of Macedonia throughout the Nineties"
.
The Independent
.
Archived
from the original on 29 January 2018
. Retrieved
2 April
2023
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Dimitar Bechev (2019).
Historical Dictionary of North Macedonia
(2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 128?129.
ISBN
9781538119624
.
- ^
a
b
Lentz, Harris, ed. (2014).
Heads of States and Governments Since 1945
. Routledge. p. 527.
ISBN
9781134264902
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Andrew Rossos (2013).
Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History
. Hoover Press. p. 264.
ISBN
9780817948832
.
- ^
The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia
, Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Taylor & Francis, 1996,
ISBN
0-8153-0399-8
, p. 150.
- ^
"Kiro Gligorov, former Macedonian president, dies"
.
The Washington Post
. 9 January 2012.
Archived
from the original on 26 March 2012
. Retrieved
24 March
2023
.
- ^
a
b
Bernard A. Cook (2014).
Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia
. Routledge. p. 512.
ISBN
9781135179328
.
- ^
a
b
c
Ramet, Sabrina; Hassenstab, Christine, eds. (2019).
Central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989
. Cambridge University Press. pp. 363, 385?387.
ISBN
9781108499910
.
- ^
"Проф. Яни Милчаков за политическата роля на Киро Глигоров"
.
Bulgarian National Radio
(in Bulgarian). 4 January 2012.
Archived
from the original on 24 June 2021.
- ^
a
b
c
Matja? Klemen?i?; Mitja Zagar (2004).
The Former Yugoslavia's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook
. ABC-CLIO. p. 378.
ISBN
9781576072943
.
- ^
a
b
John Phillips (2004).
Macedonia: Warlords and Rebels in the Balkans
. Yale University Press. pp. 47, 53.
ISBN
9781860648410
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Makedonska enciklopedija: A-LJ
. MANU. 2009. pp. 365?366.
ISBN
9786082030234
.
- ^
a
b
Daskalov, Roumen; Mishkova, Diana, eds. (2013).
Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Two: Transfers of Political Ideologies and Institutions
. BRILL. p. 539.
ISBN
9789004261914
.
- ^
Spyridon Sfetas (1995). "Autonomist movements of the Slavophones in 1944: the attitude of the Communist Party of Greece and the protection of the Greek-Yugoslav Border".
Balkan Studies
.
36
(2): 299.
- ^
"АСНОМ го определи нашето државно и национално битие"
.
Utrinski vesnik
(in Macedonian). 16 October 2006. Archived from
the original
on 30 May 2011.
- ^
P. H. Liotta (2001).
"Paradigm Lost: Yugoslav Self-Management and the Economics of Disaster"
.
Balkanologie - Revue d'etudes pluridisciplinaires
.
5
(1?2): 5.
doi
:
10.4000/balkanologie.681
.
ISSN
1965-0582
.
- ^
Woodward, Susan L. (2020).
Socialist Unemployment: The Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945-1990
. Princeton University Press. pp. 168?169.
ISBN
9780691219653
.
- ^
a
b
c
Jože Mencinger (2022). "Mathematical economics, economic modeling, and planning in Yugoslavia". In Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.).
Communist Planning versus Rationality: Mathematical Economics and the Central Plan in Eastern Europe and China
. Lexington Books. p. 297.
ISBN
9781793631770
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
a
b
Dennison Rusinow (1978).
The Yugoslav Experiment 1948-1974
. University of California Press. p. 136.
ISBN
0520037308
.
- ^
a
b
Alexander J. Motyl (2000).
Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Two-Volume Set
. Academic Press. p. 192.
ISBN
9780122272301
.
- ^
a
b
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