Period of Japanese history from 1185 to 1333, during which the Kamakura shogunate ruled
The
Kamakura period
(
鎌倉時代
,
Kamakura jidai
, 1185?1333)
is a period of
Japanese history
that marks the governance by the
Kamakura shogunate
, officially established in 1192 in
Kamakura
by the first
sh?gun
Minamoto no Yoritomo
after the conclusion of the
Genpei War
, which saw the struggle between the
Taira
and
Minamoto
clans. The period is known for the emergence of the
samurai
, the warrior caste, and for the establishment of
feudalism
in Japan.
There are various theories as to the year in which the Kamakura period and Kamakura shogunate began. In the past, the most popular theory was that the year was 1192, when Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed
Seii Taish?gun
(
征夷大?軍
)
. Later, the prevailing theory was that the year was 1185, when Yoritomo established the
Shugo
(
守護
)
, which controlled military and police power in various regions, and the
Jit?
(
地頭
)
, which was in charge of tax collection and land administration. Japanese history textbooks as of 2016 do not specify a specific year for the beginning of the Kamakura period, as there are various theories about the year the Kamakura shogunate was established.
[1]
During the early Kamakura period, the shogunate continued warfare against the
Northern Fujiwara
which was only defeated in 1189. Then, the authority to the Kamakura rulers waned in the 1190s and power was transferred to the powerful
H?j? clan
in the early 13th century with the head of the clan as regent (
Shikken
) under the shogun which became a powerless figurehead. The later Kamakura period saw the
invasions
of the
Mongols
in 1274 and again in 1281. To reduce the amount of chaos, the H?j? rulers decided to decentralize power by allowing two imperial lines ?
Northern
and
Southern court
, to alternate the throne. In the 1330s, the Southern court under
Emperor Go-Daigo
revolted and eventually led to the
Siege of Kamakura
in 1333 which ended the rule of the shogunate. With this, the Kamakura period ended. There was a
short re-establishment
(1333?1336) of imperial rule under Go-Daigo assisted by
Ashikaga Takauji
and
Nitta Yoshisada
but would later lead to direct rule under Ashikaga, forming the
Ashikaga shogunate
in the succeeding
Muromachi period
.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the H?j? regency. These provided the opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority and the government established a council centered around collective leadership. The period saw the adoption of Japan's first military code of law in 1232. There was an expansion of Buddhist teachings into Old Buddhism (
Ky? Bukky?
) and New Buddhism (
Shin Bukky?
).
Shogunate and H?j? regency
[
edit
]
The Kamakura period marked Japan's transition to a land-based economy and the concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with
fiefs
of their own; the fief holders then exercised local military rule. Once
Minamoto no Yoritomo
had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in
Kamakura
. He called his government a
bakufu
(
幕府
, tent government)
, but because he was given the ancient high military title
Sei-i Taish?gun
by
Emperor Go-Toba
, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the Shogunate. Yoritomo followed the
Fujiwara
form of house government and had an administrative board
(
政所
,
Mandokoro
)
, a board of retainers
(
侍所
,
Samurai-dokoro
)
, and a board of inquiry
(
問注所
,
Monch?jo
)
. After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed
stewards
for the estates and
constables
for the provinces. As
sh?gun
, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general.
The Kamakura shogunate was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the
Northern Fujiwara
, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. However, the fourth leader of the Northern Fujiwara
Fujiwara no Yasuhira
was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided in
Kyoto
, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.
Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son
Minamoto no Yoriie
became
sh?gun
and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early 13th century, a regency had been established by
H?j? Tokimasa
?a member of the
H?j? clan
, a branch of the
Taira
that had allied itself with the
Minamoto
in 1180. The head of H?j? was installed as a regent for the
sh?gun
; the regent was termed the
Shikken
during the period, although later positions were created with similar power such as the
Tokus?
and the
Rensho
. Often the
Shikken
was also the
Tokus?
and
Rensho
. Under the H?j?, the
sh?gun
became a powerless figurehead.
With the protection of the Emperor, a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 the
J?ky? War
broke out between the cloistered
Emperor Go-Toba
and the second regent
H?j? Yoshitoki
. The H?j? forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. The
sh?gun
's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court retained extensive estates.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the H?j? regency. In 1225 the third regent
H?j? Yasutoki
established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority within the Kamakura regime. The H?j? regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law?the
Goseibai Shikimoku
?in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in
Kyoto
were still based on 500-year-old
Confucian
principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing
inheritances
. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and parts of it remained in effect for the next 635 years.
As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The
H?j?ki
describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the
Buddhist
concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The
Heike Monogatari
narrated the rise and fall of the
Taira clan
, replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the
Shin Kokin Wakash?
, of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.
Expansion of Buddhist teachings
[
edit
]
During the Kamakura period six new Buddhist schools (classified by scholars as "New Buddhism" or
Shin Bukkyo
) were founded:
During this time the pre-existing schools of
Tendai
, founded by
Saich?
(767?822),
Shingon
, founded by
K?kai
(774?835), and the great temples of
Nara
, collectively classified by scholars as "Old Buddhism" or
Ky? Bukkyo
, continued to thrive, adapt, and exert influence.
[2]
: 24?25
For example, all of the above six reformers had studied at the Tendai
Mt. Hiei
at some point in their lives.
[3]
: 562
"Old Buddhism"
(Ky? Bukky?)
[
edit
]
Throughout the Kamakura period, older Buddhist sects including
Shingon
,
Tendai
, and the
Nara temple
schools such as
Kegon
,
Hoss?
,
Sanron
, and
Ritsu
continued to thrive and adapt to the trend of the times.
[3]
: 561?563
At the start of the Kamakura period, the
Mount Hiei
monasteries had become politically powerful, appealing primarily to those capable of systematic study of the sect's teachings. The
Shingon
sect and its esoteric ritual continued to enjoy support largely from the noble families in
Kyoto
.
[4]
However, with the increasing popularity of the new Kamakura schools, the older schools partially eclipsed as the newer "Kamakura" schools found followers among the new Kamakura government, and its
samurai
.
[
citation needed
]
.
The times that gave way to the Kamakura period were marked by political and military conflict, natural disasters, and social malaise attributed to the perceived arrival of the
Latter Day of the Law
. The new social order of a declining aristocracy and ascending military and peasant classes resulted in new forms of religion, both indigenous
[5]
: 12
and Buddhist while Indian and Chinese influence continued.
[3]
: 556?557
[5]
: 11, 13
[6]
Furthermore, the
Sh?en
manor system which had taken root in this era resulted in the increased prosperity and literacy of peasants which in turn provided more financial support for Buddhist teachers and their studies.
[5]
"New Buddhism"
(Shin Bukky?)
[
edit
]
The first originators of Kamakura Buddhism schools were
H?nen
and
Shinran
who emphasized belief and practice over formalism.
[3]
: 546
In the latter part of the 12th-century
D?gen
and
Eisai
traveled to China and upon their return to Japan founded, respectively, the
S?t?
and
Rinzai
schools of Zen. D?gen rejected affiliations with the secular authorities whereas Eisai actively sought them.
[3]
: 574
Whereas Eisai thought that Zen teachings would revitalize the
Tendai
school, D?gen aimed for an ineffable absolute, a pure Zen teaching that was not tied to beliefs and practices from Tendai or other orthodox schools
[3]
: 566
and with little guidance for leading people how to live in the secular world.
[3]
: 556
The final stage of Kamakura Buddhism, occurring some 50 years after H?nen, was marked by new social and political conditions as the aristocracy declined, the military class asserted new influence, and Buddhist-infused local
kami
practice among peasants flourished. These changing conditions created a climate that encouraged religious innovation.
Nichiren
and
Ippen
attempted at this time to create down-to-earth teachings that were rooted in the daily concerns of people.
[3]
: 555?556
Nichiren rejected the focus on "next-worldly" salvation such a rebirth in a Pure Land and instead aimed for "this-worldly" personal and national liberation through a simple and accessible practice.
[3]
: 557
Ippen emphasized a popularized form of
nenbutsu
recitation with an emphasis on practice rather than concentrating on an individual's underlying mental state.
[3]
: 559
Legacy of Kamakura Buddhism
[
edit
]
As time evolved the distinctions between "Old" and "New" Buddhisms blurred as they formed "cultic centers" and various forms of founder worship. The medieval structures of these schools evolved into hierarchical head temple-branch temple structures with associated rituals and forms of worship. This culminated in the state-sanctioned formalized schools of the
Tokugawa
period.
[2]
: 36?37
Mongol invasions
[
edit
]
The repulsions of two invasions by the
Mongol
-led
Yuan dynasty
were momentous events in Japanese history.
Nichiren
had predicted these invasions years earlier, in his
Rissho Ankoku Ron
, a letter to the regency. Japanese relations with China had been terminated in the mid-ninth century after the deterioration of the
Tang dynasty
and the turning inward of the
Heian
court. Some commercial contacts were maintained with the
Southern Song dynasty
in later centuries, but
Japanese pirates
made the open seas dangerous. At a time when the shogunate had little interest in foreign affairs and ignored communications from China and the
Goryeo dynasty
, news arrived in 1268 of a new Mongol-led regime in
Beijing
. Its leader,
Kublai
, demanded that the Japanese pay tribute to the new Yuan dynasty and threatened reprisals if they failed to do so. Unused to such threats, Kyoto raised the diplomatic counter of Japan's divine origin, rejected the Yuan demands, dismissed the Goryeo messengers, and started defensive preparations.
After further unsuccessful entreaties, the first Mongol invasion took place in 1274. More than 600 ships carried a combined ethnic Mongol,
Han
, and
Korean
force of 23,000 troops armed with
catapults
, combustible missiles, and bows and arrows. In fighting, these soldiers grouped in close cavalry formations against samurai, who were accustomed to one-on-one combat. Local Japanese forces at
Hakata
, on northern
Ky?sh?
, defended against the advantageous mainland force, which, after one day of fighting was destroyed by the onslaught of a sudden
typhoon
. Kublai realized that nature, not military incompetence, had been the cause of his forces' failure so, in 1281, he launched a second invasion. Seven weeks of fighting took place in northwestern Ky?sh? before another typhoon struck, again destroying the Yuan fleet, which was mostly composed of hastily acquired, flat-bottomed Chinese ships especially vulnerable to powerful typhoons.
Although
Shinto
priests attributed the two defeats of the Mongols to a "divine wind" or
kamikaze
,
[7]
a sign of heaven's special protection of Japan, the invasion left a deep impression on the shogunate leaders. Long-standing fears of the Chinese threat to Japan were reinforced. The victory also convinced the warriors of the value of the shogunate form of government.
The Yuan invasions had been a drain on the economy, and new taxes had to be levied to maintain defensive preparations for the future. The invasions also caused disaffection among those who expected recompense for their help in defeating the Yuan dynasty. There were no lands or other rewards to be given, however, and such disaffection, combined with overextension and the increasing defense costs, led to a decline of the Kamakura
bakufu
. Additionally, inheritances had divided family properties, and landowners increasingly had to turn to moneylenders for support. Roving bands of
r?nin
further threatened the stability of the shogunate.
Civil war
[
edit
]
The
H?j?
reacted to the ensuing chaos by trying to place more power among the various great family clans. To further weaken the
Kyoto
court, the
bakufu
decided to allow two contending imperial lines—known as the
Southern Court
or junior line and the
Northern Court
or senior line—to alternate on the throne. The method worked for several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne as
Emperor Go-Daigo
. Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the shogunate, and he openly defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the shogunate exiled Go-Daigo, but loyalist forces, including
Kusunoki Masashige
, rebelled. They were aided by
Ashikaga Takauji
, a constable who turned against the Kamakura when dispatched to put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time,
Nitta Yoshisada
, another eastern chieftain, rebelled against the shogunate, which quickly disintegrated, and the H?j? were defeated.
In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-century
Confucian
practices. This period of reform, known as the
Kenmu Restoration
, aimed at strengthening the position of the emperor and reasserting the primacy of the court nobles over the warriors' caste. The reality, however, was that the forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the H?j?, not on supporting the emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The long
War Between the Courts
lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was driven from Kyoto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who established a new line of shoguns.
Events
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
鎌倉幕府は何年に成立?正解を言えますか
(in Japanese). Toyo keizai. 9 June 2016. Archived from
the original
on 9 May 2022
. Retrieved
9 March
2024
.
- ^
a
b
Dobbins, James C. (1998).
"Envisioning Kamakura Buddhism"
. In Payne, Richard K. (ed.).
Re-visioning Kamakura Buddhism
. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
ISBN
0824820789
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Osumi, Kazuo; Dobbins, James C. (1999).
"Buddhism in the Kamakura Period"
. In Hall, John Whitney (ed.).
Cambridge History of Japan
. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.
ISBN
9780521223546
.
- ^
Kitagawa, Joseph M. (2010).
Religion in Japanese History
. Columbia University Press. p. 65.
ISBN
9780231515092
.
- ^
a
b
c
Payne, Richard K. (1998).
Re-visioning "Kamakura" Buddhism
. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 9.
ISBN
0-8248-2078-9
.
- ^
Anesaki, Masaharu (1930).
The History of Japanese Religion
. London: Trench, Trubner & Company. p. 167.
- ^
Hane, Mikiso (2015).
Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey
. Perez, Louis (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 95.
ISBN
9780813349701
.
OCLC
895428280
.
- ^
Varley, P. (1994) p. 82.
- ^
National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972).
"NOAA Earthquake Database Query"
. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information.
doi
:
10.7289/V5TD9V7K
.
- ^
McCullough, Helen Craig (1959): pp. 285?311.
References
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Varley, P.,
Warriors of Japan
, University of Hawaii Press, 1994,
ISBN
978-0-8248-1601-8
.
- McCullough, Helen Craig (1959).
The
Taiheiki
. A Chronicle of Medieval Japan
. 1959. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo,
ISBN
0-8048-3538-1
.
- Sansom, George (1963).
A history of Japan 1334?1615
. Eight Printing (1993). Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo,
ISBN
4-8053-0375-1
- Yamamura, Kozo (1990),
The Cambridge History of Japan
, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
9780521223546