Species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae
Not to be confused with
Solanum incanum
, also known by the common name "thorn apple".
Jimsonweed
|
|
Scientific classification
|
Kingdom:
|
Plantae
|
Clade
:
|
Tracheophytes
|
Clade
:
|
Angiosperms
|
Clade
:
|
Eudicots
|
Clade
:
|
Asterids
|
Order:
|
Solanales
|
Family:
|
Solanaceae
|
Genus:
|
Datura
|
Species:
|
D. stramonium
|
Binomial name
|
Datura stramonium
|
Synonyms
[1]
|
- Datura bernhardii
(Lundstr.)
- Datura bertolonii
(Parl. ex Guss.)
- Datura cabanesii
(P.Fourn.)
- Datura capensis
(Bernh.)
- Datura ferocissima
(Cabanes & P.Fourn.)
- Datura ferox
(Nees 1834 not L. 1756)
- Datura hybrida
(Ten.)
- Datura inermis
(Juss. ex Jacq.)
- Datura laevis
(L.f.)
- Datura loricata
(Sieber ex Bernh.)
- Datura lurida
(Salisb.)
- Datura microcarpa
(Godr.)
- Datura muricata
(Godr. 1873 not Bernh. 1818 nor Link 1821)
- Datura parviflora
(Salisb.)
- Datura praecox
(Godr.)
- Datura pseudostramonium
(Sieber ex Bernh.)
- Datura tatula
(L.)
- Datura wallichii
(Dunal)
- Stramonium foetidum
(Scop.)
- Stramonium laeve
(Moench)
- Stramonium spinosum
(Lam.)
- Stramonium tatula
(Moench)
- Stramonium vulgare
(Moench)
- Stramonium vulgatum
(Gaertn.)
|
Datura stramonium
, known by the common names
jimsonweed
(
jimson weed
),
devil's trumpet
, or
thornapple
,
[2]
is a poisonous
flowering plant
in the
Daturae
tribe
of the nightshade family
Solanaceae
.
[3]
Its likely origin was in
Central America
,
[2]
[4]
and it has been introduced in many world regions.
[5]
[6]
[7]
It is an aggressive
invasive weed
in
temperate climates
and
tropical climates
across the world.
[2]
D. stramonium
has frequently been employed in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments. It has also been used as a hallucinogen (of the
anticholinergic
/
antimuscarinic
,
deliriant
type), taken
entheogenically
to cause intense, sacred or occult visions.
[2]
[8]
It is unlikely ever to become a major drug of abuse owing to effects upon both mind and body frequently perceived as being highly
unpleasant
, giving rise to a state of profound and long-lasting disorientation or
delirium
(
anticholinergic syndrome
) with a potentially fatal outcome. It contains
tropane alkaloids
which are responsible for the psychoactive effects, and may be severely toxic.
[2]
[9]
Description
[
edit
]
Datura stramonium
is an erect,
annual
, freely branching herb that forms a bush up to 60 to 150 cm (2 to 5 ft) tall.
[10]
[11]
[12]
The
root
is long, thick, fibrous, and white. The
stem
is stout, erect, leafy, smooth, and pale yellow-green to reddish purple in color. The stem forks off repeatedly into branches and each fork forms a leaf and a single, erect flower.
[12]
The leaves are about 8 to 20 cm (3?8 in) long, smooth, toothed,
[11]
soft, and irregularly undulated.
[12]
The upper surface of the leaves is a darker green, and the bottom is a light green.
[11]
The leaves have a bitter and nauseating taste, which is imparted to extracts of the herb, and remains even after the leaves have been dried.
[12]
Datura stramonium
generally flowers throughout the summer. The fragrant flowers have a pleasing odour; are trumpet-shaped, white to creamy or violet, and
6 to 9 cm (
2
+
1
⁄
2
?
3
+
1
⁄
2
in) long; and grow on short stems from either the
axils
of the leaves or the places where the branches fork. The
calyx
is long and tubular, swollen at the bottom, and sharply angled, surmounted by five sharp teeth. The
corolla
, which is folded and only partially open, is white, funnel-shaped, and has prominent ribs. The flowers open at night, emitting a pleasant fragrance, and are fed upon by nocturnal moths.
[12]
The egg-shaped seed
capsule
is 3 to 8 cm (1?3 in) in diameter and either covered with spines or bald. At maturity, it splits into four chambers, each with dozens of small, black seeds.
[12]
Etymology and common names
[
edit
]
The genus name is derived from the plant's
Hindi
name,
dhat?ra
, ultimately from
Sanskrit
dhatt?ra
, 'white thorn-apple'.
[13]
The origin of Neo-Latin
stramonium
is unknown; the name
Stramonia
was used in the 17th century for various
Datura
species.
[14]
There is some evidence that
Stramonium
is originally from Greek
στρ?χνον
, 'nightshade' and
μανικ?ν
, 'which makes mad'.
[15]
It is called
ummetta
(
????????
) in
Telugu
,
[16]
and
umathai
(
??????
) in
Tamil
.;
[17]
both of which are believed to have derived from the Sanskrit word
unmatta
(
????????
), meaning 'mad' or 'insane'.
In the United States the plant is called "Jimsonweed", or more rarely "Jamestown weed" deriving from the town of
Jamestown, Virginia
, where English soldiers consumed it while attempting to suppress
Bacon's Rebellion
. They spent 11 days in altered mental states:
The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call'd) is supposed to be one of the greatest coolers in the world. This being an early plant, was gather'd very young for a boil'd salad, by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebellion of Bacon (1676); and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows [grimaces] at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll.
In this frantic condition they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves?though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed.
?
Robert Beverley Jr.
,
The History and Present State of Virginia, Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither
, 1705
[18]
Common names for
Datura stramonium
vary by region
[2]
and include
thornapple
,
[19]
moon flower,
[20]
hell's bells
,
devil's trumpet
,
devil's weed
,
tolguacha
,
Jamestown weed
,
stinkweed
,
locoweed
,
pricklyburr
,
false castor oil plant
,
[21]
and
devil's cucumber
.
[22]
Range and habitat
[
edit
]
Datura stramonium
is native to Central America, but was spread widely to the Old World early where it has also become
naturalized
.
[2]
It was scientifically described and named by Swedish botanist
Carl Linnaeus
in 1753, although it had been described a century earlier by
botanists
such as
Nicholas Culpeper
.
[23]
Today, it grows wild in all the world's warm and temperate regions, where it is found along roadsides and at dung-rich livestock enclosures.
[24]
[25]
[26]
In Europe, it is found as a weed in garbage dumps and wastelands,
[24]
and is toxic to animals consuming it.
[27]
In South Africa, it is colloquially known by the
Afrikaans
name
malpitte
('mad seeds').
[28]
Through observation, the seed is thought to be carried by birds and spread in their droppings.
[
citation needed
]
Its seeds can lie dormant underground for years and germinate when the soil is disturbed. The
Royal Horticultural Society
has advised worried gardeners to dig it up or have it otherwise removed,
[29]
while wearing gloves to handle it.
[30]
Toxicity
[
edit
]
All parts of
Datura
plants contain dangerous levels of the tropane alkaloids
atropine
,
hyoscyamine
, and
scopolamine
, all of which are classified as
deliriants
, or
anticholinergics
.
[2]
[9]
The risk of fatal
overdose
is high among uninformed users, and many hospitalizations occur among recreational users who ingest the plant for its
psychoactive
effects.
[9]
[24]
[31]
Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported.
[32]
Numerous other alkaloids have been detected at lower levels in the plant including
methylecgonine
in the roots,
apoatropine
in the stems, leaves, and other parts, and
tropine
in the flowers and other parts.
[33]
The amount of toxins varies widely from plant to plant. As much as a 20:1 variation can be found between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions.
[24]
A particularly strong difference has been found between plants growing in their native ranges and plants that have adjusted to growing in non-native ranges: in the latter, the atropine and scopolamine concentration may be up to 20?40 times lower than in the native range. It is suspected that this is an evolutionary response to lower predatory pressures.
[34]
Additionally, within a given plant, toxin concentration varies by part and even from leaf to leaf. When the plant is younger, the ratio of scopolamine to atropine is about 3:1; after flowering, this ratio is reversed, with the amount of scopolamine continuing to decrease as the plant gets older.
[35]
In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience and detailed knowledge of
Datura
was critical to minimize harm.
[24]
An individual seed contains about 0.1 mg of atropine, and the approximate fatal dose for adult humans is >10 mg atropine or >2?4 mg scopolamine.
[36]
Datura
intoxication
typically produces delirium, hallucination,
hyperthermia
,
tachycardia
, bizarre behavior,
urinary retention
, and severe
mydriasis
, with resultant painful
photophobia
that can last several days.
[9]
Pronounced
amnesia
is another commonly reported effect.
[37]
The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last as long as two weeks.
[32]
As with other cases of anticholinergic poisoning, intravenous
physostigmine
can be administered in severe cases as an antidote.
[38]
Natural defenses
[
edit
]
These chemical production responses present in
Datura stramonium
function as a natural defense for the plant against dangers.
[39]
Such dangers can range from biotic factors such as
herbivores
,
pathogens
,
viruses
,
fungi
and
oomycetes
to abiotic conditions such as drought, light, temperature, and nutrient deprivation.
Datura stramonium
can adjust to all these conditions through protein activity that is correlated with specific domains. Examples of this are
terpenoid
production to target herbivores present in multiple sites and abiotic stress responses. The abiotic responses are driven primarily by protein
kinase
regulatory subunits which are over-represented, expanded, and positively selected. These traits also show signs of
physicochemical
divergence, which put emphasis on the plant's overall adaptability.
[40]
In addition to this, terpenoids play a key role in mediating plant defense responses, as they trigger terpene
metabolite
activity.
[41]
[40]
Such activity has the effect of defending against herbivore damage through a
sulfakinin
(SK) domain that reduces sensitivity of taste receptors for certain insects that come into contact with the plant. Additionally, terpenoids serve as attractants for carnivorous entities that would then attack these same herbivores. Gene domains relating to this
immune response
have been seen in positively selected and expanded proteins in Datura stramonium.
[41]
Overall, these compounds target the central nervous systems of organisms that ingest them, to deter the herbivorous behavior.
[12]
Terpenoids are also used for plant-to-plant communication, which could be used for a community-wide threat response.
[40]
Datura stramonium
also features leaf trichomes as a defensive trait to prevent herbivory.
[42]
The physiology of the plant itself is important for understanding patterns of defense as its status as an annual plant limits opportunities for biomass regrowth post-destruction, due to its inability to engage regrowth
meristems
. This results in the leaves being susceptible to injury from even small instances of attacks. To compensate, they have a large initial size for redundancy. These leaves also have a greater longevity and ability to
metabolize
even when damaged. However, the way these plants have evolved to display these characteristics differs from traditional defense mechanisms, as
Datura stramonium
uses a combination of both resistance and growth simultaneously to address these issues, instead of relying exclusively on one or the other. It has been hypothesized that this is due to the fact that these two methods have no negative correlation between them in experimental conditions. However, resource limitations may result in a tradeoff between one method of defense versus the other. In addition, herbivores are not solely the driving force that triggers these responses within the plant. Another factor that impacts behavior is the fact that due to the wide habitat range, a number of different, region-specific response patterns have been observed. However, these defensive responses have been observed to have varying impacts on growth and fitness when put to the test against predators. Studies in ecological reserves have shown that herbivore presence can either increase or decrease plant growth, fitness, and resistance. These results can be attributed to the significant genetic variation of the individual variants present in testing.
[39]
Regional variation
[
edit
]
The
Datura
genus itself has seen little research done in regards to its various genomic sequences. As such, it is difficult to track the evolution of its traits (aside from a few instances of model species), which results in a limited understanding of how it has evolved to adapt to various environmental conditions. However, some limited studies have been done into
Datura
diversity.
Datura stramonium
diverged from the rest of the
Datura
genus around 30
million years ago. This terminal branch has the most rapidly significant, evolving gene families compared to other members of the Solanaceae family. The most recent contractions in the tree also correspond with the
most recent common ancestor
of the
Datura
species
clade
. However, the subspecies of
Datura stramonium
tend to vary greatly in regards to both gene family contractions and expansions. Variables such as immunity, response to abiotic stress, and defense against biotic threats determine
gene expansion
signaling, positive selection, and
physicochemical
divergence. Despite this,
Datura
genomes have high amounts of repetitive DNA elements even compared to other Solanaceae species' genomes, in addition to a recent, yet independent surge in
retrotransposon
expansion. Major genomic variations have been witnessed, most likely through the rapid spread of the plant's range due to human behavior. An example of this is a 59-fold difference in
tropane alkaloid
concentration present in different regions of Mexico.
[40]
Datura stramonium
regional variants have been observed to have an overall similar genome size to each other.
[39]
[40]
Tropane alkaloid evolution and implementation
[
edit
]
Tropane alkaloid
biosynthesis
is another avenue of defense with
codons
positively selected and expanded in the
Datura
branch. It is aided by the tropane alkaloid
Littorine
rearrangement which is very important to
scopolamine
and
atropine
/
hyoscyamine
production, all of which serve to debilitate any organism that would come into contact with them.
Datura stramonium
has the highest tropane alkaloid production level in all the Solanaceae family, with scopolamine, atropine, and
anisodamine
being the primary tropane alkaloids found in the plant that inhibit
neurotransmitters
. The
pmt
gene family responsible for tropane alkaloid development has been observed to have significant gene expansion in the
Datura
genus evolution. The least common ancestor only had one gene copy, while modern variants have a range of three to two present, which results in higher mutation rates for traits involved with these various alkaloids.
[40]
Use of tropane alkaloids, however, have had development spread out around many
angiosperm
families and evolutionary distances. Their presence has been reported to have arisen multiple times in Solanaceae lineages, some instances of which being independent of each other. This gives credence to the same diversification of tropane alkaloid production witnessed in the
Datura stramonium
regional variants.
[41]
Another aspect of these varying Solanaceae lineages is that
enzymes
from completely different protein groups have been observed to be utilized to form similar biosynthesis reactions. In addition to this, differing
protein folds
and domain expressions correlate to different levels of tropane alkaloid production.
[40]
Poisoning incidents
[
edit
]
In Australia in December 2022, around 200 people reported becoming ill after eating products containing spinach, sold mostly through
Costco
.
Datura stramonium
was identified as the contaminant, whose young leaves had been picked alongside the spinach leaves. The weed had spread due to increased rainfall. The grower, Riviera Farms, is from the
Gippsland
region of
Victoria
, and acted promptly to eradicate the weed.
[43]
Uses
[
edit
]
Traditional medicine
[
edit
]
One of the primary active agents in
Datura
is
atropine
, which has been used in
traditional medicine
and for recreation over centuries.
[2]
[9]
The leaves are generally smoked, either in a cigarette or a pipe.
During the late 18th century, James Anderson, the English Physician General of the
East India Company
, learned of the practice and popularized it in Europe.
[44]
[45]
The Chinese also used it as a form of
anesthesia
during surgery.
[46]
Early folk medicine
[
edit
]
John Gerard
's
Herball
(1597) states,
[12]
[T]he juice of Thornapple, boiled with hog's grease, cureth all inflammations whatsoever, all manner of burnings and scaldings, as well of fire, water, boiling lead, gunpowder, as that which comes by lightning and that in very short time, as myself have found in daily practice, to my great credit and profit.
William Lewis
reported, in the late 18th century, that the juice could be made into "a very powerful remedy in various convulsive and spasmodic disorders, epilepsy and mania," and was also "found to give ease in external inflammations and
haemorrhoids
".
[47]
Henry Hyde Salter discusses
D. stramonium
as a treatment for
asthma
in his 19th-century work
On Asthma: its Pathology and Treatment
. Smoking of herbs, including
D. stramonium
, was thought to provide relief for
asthmatics
since
antiquity
and into the early 20th century.
[48]
[49]
The use of smoking
D. stramonium
to treat asthma would later wane following new understandings of
asthma
as an allergic inflammatory reaction, and developments in pharmacology that provided more effective treatments.
[49]
Spiritualism and the occult
[
edit
]
Across the Americas, indigenous peoples, such as the
Algonquian
,
Aztecs
,
Navajo
,
Cherokee
,
Luiseno
and the indigenous peoples of
Marie-Galante
used this plant or other
Datura
species in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.
[50]
[51]
[52]
In
Ethiopia
, some students and
debtrawoch
(lay priests), use
D. stramonium
to "open the mind" to be more receptive to learning, and creative and imaginative thinking.
[53]
The common name "datura" has its origins in
India
, where the sister species
Datura metel
is considered particularly sacred ? believed to be a favorite of
Shiva
in
Shaivism
.
[54]
Both
Datura stramonium
and
D. metel
have reportedly been used by some
sadhus
and
charnel ground
ascetics, such as the
Aghori
, as both an
entheogen
and ritual poison. It was sometimes mixed with
cannabis
, as well as highly poisonous plants like
Aconitum ferox
, to intentionally create dysphoric experiences.
[55]
The ascetics have used unpleasant or toxic plants such as these in order to achieve spiritual liberation (
moksha
), in settings of extreme horror and discomfort.
[56]
[57]
Among its visionary purposes, jimsonweed also garnered a reputation for supposed magical uses in various cultures throughout history. In his book,
The Serpent and the Rainbow
,
Wade Davis
identified
D. stramonium
, called "zombi cucumber" in
Haiti
, as a central ingredient of the concoction
vodou
priests use to create
zombies
.
[58]
[59]
However, it has been noted that the process of
zombification
is not directly performed by vodou priests of the
loa
but rather by
bokors
.
[60]
In European witchcraft,
D. stramonium
was also supposedly a common ingredient used for making
witches' flying ointment
along with other poisonous plants of the
nightshade family
.
[61]
It was often responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of magical or
lycanthropic
salves and potions.
[8]
[62]
During the
witch
-phobia craze in
Early Modern
times in England and parts of the colonial
Northeastern United States
, it was often considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow the plant in one's garden, as it was considered to be an aid to
incantations
.
[12]
Cultivation
[
edit
]
Datura stramonium
prefers rich,
calcareous
soil. Adding
nitrogen fertilizer
to the soil increases the concentration of
alkaloids
present in the plant.
D. stramonium
can be grown from seed, which is sown with several feet between plants. It is sensitive to frost, so should be sheltered during cold weather. The plant is harvested when the fruits are ripe, but still green. To harvest, the entire plant is cut down, the leaves are stripped from the plant, and everything is left to dry. When the fruits begin to burst open, the seeds are harvested. For intensive plantations, leaf yields of 1,100 to 1,700 kilograms per hectare (1,000 to 1,500 lb/acre) and seed yields of 780 kg/ha (700 lb/acre) are possible.
[63]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Datura stramonium L."
Plants of the World Online
. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
"
Datura stramonium
(jimsonweed)"
. CABI. 21 November 2018
. Retrieved
6 May
2019
.
- ^
"GRIN Genera of
Solanaceae
tribe
Datureae
"
.
Germplasm Resources Information Network
. United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from
the original
on 17 February 2013
. Retrieved
12 December
2012
.
- ^
"Datura stramonium in Flora of China @ efloras.org"
.
efloras.org
. Retrieved
16 August
2017
.
- ^
"
Datura stramonium
"
.
Germplasm Resources Information Network
.
Agricultural Research Service
,
United States Department of Agriculture
. Retrieved
5 February
2008
.
- ^
"Biota of North America Program, 2014 county distribution map"
.
bonap.net
.
- ^
Australia, Atlas of Living.
"Datura stramonium: Common thornapple | Atlas of Living Australia"
.
bie.ala.org.au
. Retrieved
16 August
2017
.
- ^
a
b
Schultes, Richard Evans; Albert Hofmann (1979).
Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use
New York: McGraw-Hill.
ISBN
0-07-056089-7
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Glatstein, Miguel; Alabdulrazzaq, Fatoumah; Scolnik, Dennis (2016). "Belladonna Alkaloid Intoxication".
American Journal of Therapeutics
.
23
(1): e74?e77.
doi
:
10.1097/01.mjt.0000433940.91996.16
.
ISSN
1075-2765
.
PMID
24263161
.
S2CID
10336715
.
- ^
Stace, Clive
(1997).
New Flora of the British Isles
. Cambridge University Press. p. 532.
ISBN
978-0-521-65315-2
.
- ^
a
b
c
Henkel, Alice (1911).
"Jimson weed"
.
American Medicinal Leaves and Herbs
. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 30.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Grieve, Maud (1971).
A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2
. Dover Publications. p. 804.
ISBN
978-0-486-22799-3
.
- ^
Monier-Williams, Monier
(1899).
A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages
. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
OCLC
685239912
.
- ^
Francis Hamilton (1823).
"A Commentary on the Second Part of the
Hortus Malabaricus
"
.
Transactions of the Linnean Society of London
.
XIV
: 233.
- ^
"Datura species"
.
Plants Poisonous to Livestock
. Cornell University Department of Animal Science
. Retrieved
12 February
2010
.
- ^
andhra-bharati (1 February 2024).
"???????? : ????????????? (?????????? ????????????????) 1912"
.
andhrabharati.com/dictionary
(in Telugu)
. Retrieved
1 February
2024
.
- ^
Gnaana (16 October 2017).
"???????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ?????????"
.
tamil.boldsky.com
(in Tamil)
. Retrieved
17 May
2021
.
- ^
Beverley, Robert
.
"Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither"
.
The History and Present State of Virginia, In Four Parts
. University of North Carolina. p. 24 (Book II)
. Retrieved
15 December
2008
.
- ^
Bunney, Sarah.
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs
.
- ^
"Jimsonweed"
. University of Texas El Paso / Austin Cooperative Pharmacy Program & Paso del Norte Health Foundation. Archived from
the original
on 29 July 2013
. Retrieved
13 February
2013
.
- ^
Joseph Henry Maiden (1920).
The Weeds of New South Wales
. Vol. 1. W.A. Gullick, Government printer. p. 76.
Thorn Apple or False Castor Oil Plant)
- ^
"Thorn-apple, Datura stramonium ? Flowers ? NatureGate"
.
luontoportti.com
.
- ^
Culpeper, Nicholas (1653),
Culpeper's Complete Herbal
, Slough: W Foulsham & Co Ltd, pp.
368?369
,
ISBN
978-0-572-00203-9
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
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Brugmansia and Datura: Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples
. Firefly Books. pp. 124?125.
ISBN
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.
- ^
Veblen, K.E. (2012).
"Savanna glade hotspots: Plant community development and synergy with large herbivores"
.
Journal of Arid Environments
.
78
: 119?127.
Bibcode
:
2012JArEn..78..119V
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.016
.
- ^
Oudhia P., Tripathi R.S.(1998).Allelopathic potential of
Datura stramonium
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"Alkaloid-containing plants poisonous to cattle and horses in Europe"
.
Toxins
.
7
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doi
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.
ISSN
2072-6651
.
PMC
4690134
.
PMID
26670251
.
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"Malpitte Madness"
.
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. 21 December 1974
. Retrieved
29 January
2022
.
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"Deadly Harry Potter plant devil's snare turns up in Suffolk pensioner's garden"
. Retrieved
30 August
2017
.
- ^
"There's a devil in my garden..."
Dawlish Newspapers
. Retrieved
30 August
2017
.
- ^
AJ Giannini,
Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition
. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Corporation, pp.48-51.
ISBN
1-57066-053-0
.
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a
b
Pennachio, Marcello; et al. (2010).
Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine
. Oxford University Press. p. 7.
ISBN
978-0-19-537001-0
.
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El Bazaoui, Ahmed; Bellimam, My Ahmed; Soulaymani, Abdelmajid (March 2011). "Nine new tropane alkaloids from
Datura stramonium
L. identified by GC/MS".
Fitoterapia
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doi
:
10.1016/j.fitote.2010.09.010
.
PMID
20858536
.
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Castillo, Guillermo; Calahorra-Oliart, Adriana; Nunez-Farfan, Juan; Valverde, Pedro L.; Arroyo, Juan; Cruz, Laura L.; Tapia-Lopez, Rosalinda (23 August 2019).
"Selection on tropane alkaloids in native and non-native populations of Datura stramonium"
.
Ecology and Evolution
.
9
(18): 10176?10184.
Bibcode
:
2019EcoEv...910176C
.
doi
:
10.1002/ece3.5520
.
ISSN
2045-7758
.
PMC
6787939
.
PMID
31632642
.
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Nellis, David W. (1997).
Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean
. Pineapple Press. p. 237.
ISBN
978-1-56164-111-6
.
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Arnett AM (December 1995).
"Jimson Weed (Datura stramonium) poisoning"
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Clinical Toxicology Review
.
18
(3).
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Freye, Enno (21 September 2009).
Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs
. Springer Netherlands. pp. 217?218.
doi
:
10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34
.
ISBN
978-90-481-2447-3
.
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Goldfrank, Lewis R.; Flommenbaum, Neil (2006).
Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies
. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 677.
ISBN
978-0-07-147914-1
.
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a
b
c
Valverde, P. L.; Fornoni, J.; Nunez-Farfan, J. (11 December 2002).
"Evolutionary ecology of Datura stramonium: equal plant fitness benefits of growth and resistance against herbivory"
.
Journal of Evolutionary Biology
.
16
(1): 127?137.
doi
:
10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00482.x
.
ISSN
1010-061X
.
PMID
14635887
.
S2CID
43040585
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
De-la-Cruz, I. M.; Hallab, A.; Olivares-Pinto, U.; Tapia-Lopez, R.; Velazquez-Marquez, S.; Pinero, D.; Oyama, K.; Usadel, B.; Nunez-Farfan, J. (13 January 2021).
"Genomic signatures of the evolution of defence against its natural enemies in the poisonous and medicinal plant Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)"
.
Scientific Reports
.
11
(1): 882.
doi
:
10.1038/s41598-020-79194-1
.
ISSN
2045-2322
.
PMC
7806989
.
PMID
33441607
.
- ^
a
b
c
Jirschitzka, Jan; Schmidt, Gregor W.; Reichelt, Michael; Schneider, Bernd; Gershenzon, Jonathan; D’Auria, John Charles (26 June 2012).
"Plant tropane alkaloid biosynthesis evolved independently in the Solanaceae and Erythroxylaceae"
.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
.
109
(26): 10304?10309.
Bibcode
:
2012PNAS..10910304J
.
doi
:
10.1073/pnas.1200473109
.
ISSN
0027-8424
.
PMC
3387132
.
PMID
22665766
.
- ^
Castillo, G., Cruz, L. L., Tapia-Lopez, R., Olmedo-Vicente, E., Carmona, D., Anaya-Lang, A. L., Fornoni, J., Andraca-Gomez, G., Valverde, P. L., & Nunez-Farfan, J. (2014). Selection mosaic exerted by specialist and generalist herbivores on chemical and physical defense of Datura stramonium. PLoS ONE, 9(7).
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"Noxious weed thornapple responsible identified as spinach contaminant, after about 200 Australians became ill"
. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 22 December 2022.
- ^
Barceloux, Donald G. (2008).
"Cascara"
.
Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals
. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1877.
ISBN
978-1-118-38276-9
.
- ^
Pennachio, Marcello; et al. (2010).
Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine
. Oxford University Press. p. 6.
ISBN
978-0-19-537001-0
.
- ^
Nellis, David W. (1997).
Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean
. Pineapple Press. p. 238.
ISBN
978-1-56164-111-6
.
- ^
William Lewis
,
"An Experimental History Of The Materia Medica: Stramonium"
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von Mutius, Erika; Drazen, Jeffrey M. (2012).
"A Patient with Asthma Seeks Medical Advice in 1828, 1928, and 2012"
.
New England Journal of Medicine
.
366
(9): 827?834.
doi
:
10.1056/NEJMra1102783
.
ISSN
0028-4793
.
PMID
22375974
.
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b
Jackson, Mark (2011).
"
"Divine Stramonium": The Rise and Fall of Smoking for Asthma"
.
Medical History
.
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(2): 171?194.
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:
10.1017/S0025727300000235
.
ISSN
0025-7273
.
PMC
2844275
.
PMID
20357985
.
- ^
Biaggioni, Italo; et al. (2011).
Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System
. Academic Press. p. 77.
ISBN
978-0-12-386525-0
.
- ^
Pennachio, Marcello; et al. (2010).
Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine
. Oxford University Press. pp. 82?83.
ISBN
978-0-19-537001-0
.
- ^
Davis, Wade (1997).
The Serpent and the Rainbow: a Harvard scientist's astonishing journey into the secret societies of Haitian voodoo, zombis and magic
. Simon & Schuster. p.
[
page needed
]
.
ISBN
978-0-684-83929-5
.
- ^
Molvaer, Reidulf Knut (1995).
Socialization and Social Control in Ethiopia
. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 259.
ISBN
978-3-447-03662-7
.
- ^
Pennachio, Marcello; et al. (2010).
Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine
. Oxford University Press. p. 6.
ISBN
978-0-19-537001-0
.
- ^
The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants : Ethnopharmacology and its Applications
, Ratsch, Christian, pub. Park Street Press U.S.A. 2005
- ^
"Indian doc focuses on Hindu cannibal sect"
. Today (American TV program).
- ^
Svoboda, Robert (1986).
Aghora: At the Left Hand of God | Brotherhood of Life
. Brotherhood of Life.
ISBN
0-914732-21-8
.
- ^
Clairvius Narcisse
- ^
Davis, Wade (1985),
The Serpent and the Rainbow
, New York: Simon & Schuster
- ^
Davis, Wade (1988).
Passage of Darkness: The Ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie
. Robert F. Thompson, Richard E. Schultes. University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN
0-8078-1776-7
.
- ^
Ratsch, Christian,
The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications
pub. Park Street Press 2005
- ^
Hansen, Harold A.
The Witch's Garden
pub. Unity Press 1978
ISBN
978-0913300473
- ^
Chopra, I.C. (2006).
Indigenous Drugs of India
. Academic Publishers. p. 143.
ISBN
9788185086804
.
External links
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Precursors
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Tooltip Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
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