Freedom fighter
Istvan Turr
(
Italian
:
Stefano Turr
,
French
:
Etienne Turr
; 10 August 1825 ? 3 May 1908
[1]
) was a Hungarian soldier, revolutionary, canal architect and engineer, remembered in Italy for his role in that country's
unification
and his association with
Garibaldi
. In the later years of his life became known as a
peace activist
.
Young age and Enlistment
[
edit
]
Turr was born in the city of
Baja, Hungary
, the fifth child of an
ironmonger
. His mother was Terezia Udvary, whose father was a medical doctor. When young he was not a diligent pupil and left school early. As a teenager he tried his father's profession as well as working in a mill and as an unskilled mason, but did not show great aptitude for any of these three jobs.
The first time he tried to enlist in the Austrian Army he was rejected, but on his re-application in 1842 he was accepted at the age of 17. Moreover, officers found in him a hitherto unnoticed promise and encouraged him to improve himself and undergo officer's training at
Pecs
. By 1848 he was already a military engineer at the rank of
lieutenant
in a Hungarian
grenadier
regiment.
Deserting the Austrian Army, fighting for the 1848 Revolution in Italy
[
edit
]
At the time when the
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
engulfed his homeland, Turr was stationed in
Lombardy
, Italy. He was involved in early fighting against Piedmont and witnessed the cruel reprisals inflicted on rebellious Italians at
Monza
, where he was stationed, which caused him to change his loyalties.
On 19 January 1849 Turr crossed the bridge over the
Ticino
and went over to the
Piedmont
side. He was immediately placed in command of the newly formed "Hungarian Legion", comprising numerous deserters of the Austrian Imperial Army. Its ranks were swelled by the increasing desertion of Hungarian soldiers and officers, crossing the Ticino in small boats every night until the Austrian command moved them away.
In a parallel development, another Hungarian Legion, headed by Lajos Winkler (1810?1861) who would later become Turr's close associate, was formed at
Venice
and fought in defence of the revolutionary
Repubblica di San Marco
headed by
Daniele Manin
.
[2]
Thus, Turr became involved in the
First Italian War of Independence
, under the leadership of King
Carlo Alberto
of Piedmont. The final Austrian victory at
Novara
dashed the Italian hopes. Carlo Alberto had to abdicate and go into exile, and Piedmont could no longer carry on the struggle.
From Italy to Baden
[
edit
]
Under the terms of the ceasefire imposed on Piedmont, the Hungarian Legion (and a similar Polish Legion, also composed of deserters from the Austrian Army) were to be disbanded. Privates and NCO's up to the rank of sergeant-major were offered a pardon and a return home. This did not include the officers, but the Austrians did not object to their accepting commissions in the Piedmontese Army.
However, when Turr put it to his men, they voted by acclamation to reject the Austrian pardon, stay together and leave Piedmont in search of a place whose revolution was still holding out. At first they set out for the
Roman Republic
, but were blocked by the French forces besieging the city (thus, Turr's meeting with
Garibaldi
, at this time directing Rome's defence, was delayed for ten years).
Next, the Hungarians entered France itself via
Nice
, where they had to give up their arms and the authorities regarded them with considerable suspicion. The Hungarians, kept for a considerable time in
Toulon
, conceived the idea of going to the
Ottoman Empire
, where some Hungarians already got refuge (and many more would follow in the coming years). However, the French disliked this idea, attempting to send them instead to
Algiers
, where, Turr feared, the Hungarian Legion would "melt down". He then decided to try heading to Britain in the hope that from there it would be easier to get to Turkey.
Hearing of the revolutionary ferment at
Baden
, Germany, where "the army had joined with the people to overthrow the monarchial government", Turr decided to set out in that direction, also in the hope of eventually returning to a liberated Hungary via Germany. Two contingents of the Hungarian Legion did manage to cross into Germany and reach Baden; a third was stopped by the French and diverted to
Folkestone
, where the British put them on a ship headed to Turkey.
Bringing sorely needed reinforcements, Turr was warmly welcomed in Baden, made immediately upon arrival a colonel in its revolutionary army, and got three battalions of German troops under his command in addition to the Hungarians who came with him. He did not hold this position long, however, as the Baden revolution soon succumbed to an overwhelming
Prussian
attack. Together with the overthrown Baden Government, he and his troops had to seek refuge in Switzerland. The victors, in control of occupied Baden, were summarily executing the officers of the revolutionary army who fell into their hands.
In
Bern
, Turr got the bitter news of the revolution being crushed in his own homeland, too, after prolonged fighting throughout Hungary. He was faced with the prospect of an exile life of indefinite duration, with his life forfeit if he ever tried to go home.
Sending exiles to America
[
edit
]
In the wake of the Hungarian Army's
surrender at Vilagos
(now
?iria, Romania
) on 13 August 1849, the Austrians in the following month, September, renewed the offer of a free pardon to the men of the Hungarian Legion. This time, a considerable part of them accepted the offer, "tired of incessant fatigues and disappointments, and having lost all hope of ever being able to fight for their country's cause", and went back to defeated Hungary.
The sympathetic
Government of Switzerland
, described by Turr as "always humane and noble minded", financed and facilitated the sending the rest of the Hungarian soldiers to
America
. (This Federal Swiss government was newly installed, composed of the
Radicals
, who won the
Swiss civil war
two years earlier, one of the few regimes established by the
Revolutions of 1848
that remained in power, inclined to help the less fortunate revolutionary refugees.)
Turr himself, dejected and in bad health, remained in Europe, alternating between Switzerland and Piedmont, and living on a pension that the
Piedmont-Sardinian
Government granted to him.
In October 1850, the above-mentioned Captain Lajos Winkler, who had fought at Venice, came over from
Lombardy
, in command of a party of about a hundred Hungarian privates that he had kept together under discipline. Turr's 1856 brochure, mentioning this and other events of the 1850s,
[3]
does not relate where Winkler and his men had been and what they had been doing during the year since the fall of Venice; evidently, they had gotten the help of sympathetic Italians.
With the Hungarian fortunes at their nadir, Turr and Winkler devised a plan of sailing with this troop to
Montevideo
, to join the Liberal forces fighting against
Juan Manuel de Rosas
in the
Uruguayan Civil War
. Since the 1830s, the prolonged struggle, especially the perilous Siege of Montevideo, gained the considerable support and sympathy of progressive Europeans, and it was there that
Garibaldi
first gained his reputation as a freedom fighter. With the European revolutions crushed, the war in Uruguay seemed to offer Turr the only place where he could still "contribute to the protection of freedom against oppression and tyranny".
Had Turr carried out this plan, his subsequent career might have been considerably different. However, at
Genoa
, they were faced with a firm Austrian demand for the extradition of the Hungarian deserters. To save them, Turr falsely declared that they had all belonged to the former Piedmontese-Hungarian Legion that he had commanded and thus covered by the amnesty offered to these.
Turr gained the Piedmontese Government's permission to take the Hungarian troops to Switzerland, whose friendly Federal Council in turn obtained French permission for them to go to America. As the Austrians had not completely given up their demands, Turr personally conducted the exiled troops as they made their way on foot to
Le Havre
and saw them safely embarked to their destination.
From the Austrian point of view, the demand for the Hungarian troops' extradition turned out to be a serious blunder. Instead of letting Turr neatly get rid of himself and devote his energies to Latin American struggles, the Austrians themselves ensured that he would stay on in Europe and become an increasingly disturbing thorn in the Habsburg Empire's side.
Many of the Hungarian "
Forty-Eighters
" who arrived in the US at this time are known to have later fought on the Union side in the
American Civil War
. The ones sent off by Turr might have been among them.
Mazzinian conspiracies and the Crimean War
[
edit
]
Between 1850 and 1853 the exile Turr, facing execution as a deserter should he return to Hungary, moved between Switzerland, France, England and Piedmont.
In the early 1850s he became closely involved with fellow exile in
Mazzinian
conspiracies, such as the failed
Milan
uprising of 6 February 1853.
Following the outbreak of the
Crimean War
Turr was also involved in the plan of
Gyorgy Klapka
, former War Minister of the 1848 revolutionary Hungarian government, to raise a force of Hungarian exiles to fight against Russia, whose intervention in 1848?49 had tipped the scales against the Hungarian rebels.
Even before the Crimean War, a considerable number of exiled Hungarians had already taken service with the
Ottomans
, some reaching high positions without having to convert to Islam (see
Islam in Hungary
). During the
Siege of Kars
in eastern Anatolia, Hungarian exiles took an active part in defending this border city against the invading Russians.
As Turr would later disclose to Italian friends, supporting the Ottoman Empire against the Russian Empire was far less satisfactory to him than taking part in the Italian struggle for liberation. It was more in the nature of "
serving one barbarism, out of the hatred of another barbarism
".
[4]
Arrest by the Austrians, court martial, release
[
edit
]
During the
Crimean War
, in 1855 Turr was required to procure supplies for the British forces in the
Danubian Principalities
, at the time occupied by Austria though not annexed to the Habsburg Empire. He trusted to the protection of the British and to promises of safe-conduct by locally stationed Austrian officers, which were apparently overruled by Vienna.
In
Bucharest
Turr was arrested and sent on to Kronstadt (the present
Bra?ov
), where he was interrogated and court-martialed. He was sentenced to death for desertion and treason ("seeking to detach Italy and Hungary from Austrian rule"). However, the Emperor commuted his punishment to perpetual banishment, due to the strong British protests, apparently involving
Queen Victoria
personally.
At the time, the whole affair got considerable press attention all over Europe, and on his release Turr published a long and detailed account of it.
[5]
Disputed British naturalization
[
edit
]
It was in 1856, after this intervention to save him that Turr asked for British citizenship. This was granted, but his naturalization was thereafter strongly contested, as can be seen from a then-classified British document stating tersely:
Naturalization by certificate of secretary of state: Naturalization Act 1844: Certificate obtained by fraud: Colonel Etienne Turr. False statements as to residence and intention to reside. Law officers advised that certificate could not be revoked by secretary of state.
[6]
The document was declassified only thirty years later and not given particular prominence even then. It does not seem to have influenced Turr's reputation.
1859 fighting, wounded at Brescia
[
edit
]
With the outbreak of the
Second Italian War of Independence
in 1859 Turr returned to that country and joined
Garibaldi
's volunteer unit
Cacciatori delle Alpi
("Hunters of the Alps"). Garibaldi held Turr in great esteem and in one speech dubbed him "The Fearless Hungarian".
On the circumstances of Turr's wounding on 15 June 1859, an eye-witness report is provided in a letter by Frank Leward, an English volunteer fighting with Garibaldi:
Col Turr, an' Hungarian who hates the Austrians like sin, had been sent with a lot more of our men to
Rezzato
a few miles from
Brescia
on the road to Preschiera and a battalion of Austrians came at them but Turr sent them off and was so excited he followed them up too far and fell into a sort of ambuscade they had waiting for him and he got awfully cut up. However he managed to keep the enemy at bay for some time. Castenodolo the place was called I think [where] Turr lost a heap of men
(...).
The General [Garibaldi] was in an awful stew, [he] made me go with him to Castenodolo. On the way we met Turr badly wounded in an ambulance he was very bad but tried to sit up and sang out viva Italia then we met a lot more wounded being carried off
.
[7]
Expedition of the Thousand, promotion to general
[
edit
]
Turr had completely recovered from his wounds by the next year (1860), when he again followed Garibaldi and took a major part in the
Expedition of the Thousand
.
The 500
Hungarians
led by Turr, helped by fellow exiles Adolf Mogyorody, Nandor Eber and Gusztav Frigyesy, were the largest contingent of foreign volunteers fighting with Garibaldi, alongside French,
Poles
, Swiss, German and other nationalities. Like the Hungarians, most of the other internationals were fighting with a view to follow up the liberation of Italy with that of their own countries from foreign or domestic tyranny (see
International Legion
).
In later parts of the campaign, as Garibaldi's campaign gathered momentum and many local recruits in Sicily and South Italy, Turr was in command also of an increasing number of Italian troops.
In
Talamone
, en route to
Sicily
, Garibaldi promoted Turr to General and included him in the General Staff formed for the expedition. After the
Siege of Palermo
, Turr led the force that went through the rugged Sicilian interior towards
Messina
, while Garibaldi himself went on along the island's north shore. After crossing to the mainland, Turr led a force of 1,500 men towards
Salerno
.
Franco Catalano, analysing the
Battle of Volturnus (1860)
, accuses Turr of "reckleness" that contributed to the initial Garibaldian defeats at
Caiazzo
and
Castel Morrone
,
[8]
but the overall battle ended with Garibaldi's decisive victory, and at the time there were no recriminations.
In the aftermath of the fighting Turr was appointed by Garibaldi as Governor of
Naples
. In this role he conducted the plebiscite of 21 October 1860, in which the city's population voted overwhelmingly in favour of incorporation in the new
Kingdom of Italy
.
During the famous meeting of Garibaldi with King
Victor Emmanuel II
at
Teano
, the king refused Garibaldi's request that the soldiers and officers who took part in the Expedition of the Thousand be taken into the Italian Army, and most of them were in fact dismissed. Garibaldi afterwards went back to his home in
Caprera
, and his later relations with the King and the royal government were often tense. However, Victor Emmanuel not only confirmed Turr's rank as a general but also made him a royal
aide-de-camp
, and subsequently entrusted to Turr the handling of some sensitive diplomatic matters. Despite this divergence of political courses, Turr remained on highly cordial and friendly relations with Garibaldi until the latter's death in 1882.
Meanwhile, back in Austrian-ruled Hungary, the city of
Debrecen
on 6 February 1861, declared Turr and as Kossuth, Klapka and other exiled nationalists, to be its honorary citizen. This was an act of defiance, as at the time Turr stood to be executed out of hand had he attempted to arrive at the city whose honorary citizen he became,
[9]
Wedding and Napoleonic connection
[
edit
]
On 10 September 1861, in
Mantua
, Turr married Adelina Bonaparte Wyse (1838?1899), granddaughter of
Lucien Bonaparte
, the brother of the Emperor Napoleon, which made her a cousin of the then Emperor
Napoleon III
of France.
[10]
(Her legal parents were
Sir Thomas Wyse
, British Minister to Athens, and Princess Maria Letizia Bonaparte, Lucien Bonaparte's daughter; however, her real father was her mother's long-time lover British Army officer Captain
Studholme John Hodgson
.,
[11]
as Princess Letizia had separated from her husband).
Moreover, Adelina's sister,
Laetitia Marie Wyse Bonaparte
, married in the same year the Piedmontese statesman
Urbano Rattazzi
, who was the Italian Prime Minister several times during the 1860, thus became Turr's brother in law.
Turr is mentioned as having, with the help of his wife, carried out extensive diplomatic activity. Among other things, both of them are known to have conducted extensive correspondence with
Prince Napoleon
, the Emperor's cousin and advisor, a proponent of the anti-Clerical forces in the French imperial court and opponent of the policy of letting French troops preserve the Pope's
temporal power
over Rome
[12]
Istvan Turr and his wife had one son, Raoul Turr (1865?1906).
Pallanza Dignitary
[
edit
]
In October 1862, Turr acquired from the Milanese Carlo Lattuada a villa in
Pallanza
, described as "an elegant dwelling with a garden facing the lake" (i.e.
Lake Maggiore
).
The Turrs immediately became prominent figures in the town's social life, as seen in repeated reports in the local paper, the "
Il Lago Maggiore
". The return after a visit to France of "The Valorous Hungarian General and his Most Beautiful and Amiable Consort, Princess Bonaparte" was a major local news item. The couple were hosted and feted by the town's dignitaries (sub-prefect, municipal councillors and the commander of the local National Guard) with a civic band playing various pieces, prominently ones associated with Garibaldi.
The Turrs also took considerable interest in the lower classes. Turr became the Honorary President of the local Labourers' Society (Societa Operaia di Pallanza) and gave donations to be distributed among the needy. On 4 November 1862 the paper noted with regret that:
Now that the summer is over, the Turr Family has left and are not expected back until next spring. They carry with them the esteem and affection of the townspeople, who have come to appreciate their rare qualities. Before her departure, Mrs. Adelina Turr insisted upon visiting the orphanages, where the children greeted her with a most abundant dose of confetti. It was wonderful to see this scion of one of the greatest and most powerful families of Europe caress and kiss the sons of our labourers, and make the effort of conversing with them in their Pallanzese dialect.
[13]
In 1876, the Pallanza villa was sold to Cesar Bozzotti, apparently because Turr was able to return to Hungary after 1867 (see below) and, therefore, spent less time in Italy.
Romanian Negotiations
[
edit
]
In 1863, Turr returned to the
Romanian Principalities
, now under the government of
Alexandru Ioan Cuza
, who had shown some sympathy to the Hungarian exiles. Following upon an earlier (1861) delegation headed by Klapka, Turr sought an agreement on establishing Hungarian weapons and supplies depots on Moldavian soil, with a view to a new uprising against Habsburg rule.
In case of their independence being achieved, the Hungarians promised "a full autonomy" to the Romanian population of
Transylvania
. Nevertheless, disagreement on the Question of Transylvania prevented Turr and his fellows from reaching an agreement.
At the time, Turr was a confidential adviser to Italian King Vittorio Emanuele. With
Venetia
still held by the Austrians and a new war a distinct possibility, it was clearly in Italy's interest to have a Hungarian rebellion open a second front for the Austrians.
[14]
Planned Hungarian uprising in 1866
[
edit
]
In 1866, in coordination with the
Third Italian War of Independence
and Garibaldi's campaign against the Austrians in the
Trentino
, Turr was assigned to prepare an uprising in Hungary involving
Gyorgy Klapka
and other Hungarian exiles. It was supposed to be launched from
Serbian
territory, but because of the fast ending of the
Prussian-Austrian War
including its Italian part, it never came to implementation, and the next year's developments rendered all such plans moot.
Return to Hungary
[
edit
]
Defeat in the war forced the Emperor
Franz Josef
to grant a Liberal Constitution as well as a
renewed autonomy for the ancient Kingdom of Hungary
; the unitary Austria became the dual
Austria-Hungary
. The changed political climate also included an amnesty for exiles such as Turr, who could at last return to his homeland.
Not long after his return, Turr, no longer an implacable foe of Austrian interests, was informally involved in (ultimately unsuccessful) negotiations aimed at creating an alliance between Austria, Italy and France.
Canal Architect and Engineer
[
edit
]
Though often referred to as "General Turr" until the end of his life, in practice Turr did not take up an active military or political career in Hungary. Rather, he chose to devote his later years to working as a canal architect and engineer.
Using his wide international experience and personal contacts, he was a leading proponent of the building of navigation canals and river navigation systems in Hungary.
[15]
On the basis of his international experience, Turr was charged with elaborating a plan for navigable canals connecting the
Danube
and
Tisza
rivers.
Turr was deeply involved with the
Panama Canal
at its earlier stage, being himself the President of the "Societe Civile Internationale du Canal Interoceanique" that proposed to build it.
[16]
In 1876, Turr as well as
Bela Gerster
, a younger Hungarian engineer who would be his partner in later projects, accompanied
Ferdinand de Lesseps
in an international expedition with the task of locating the most suitable route of an interoceanic canal that would eventually become the Panama Canal.
However, Turr was no longer involved in later stages of the French Panama project, having shifted his interest and gave his full attention to another canal, closer to home (see below). This saved Turr from public responsibility for the fiasco of the collapse of French Panama project and the appalling loss of thousands of workers to disease at Panama.
After 1881, Turr and Gerster were involved with the Greek Government's major project of planning and implementing the
Corinth Canal
, a project that gained considerable international attention. In his 1883 travel book, "To the Gold Coast for Gold",
Richard Francis Burton
mentioned meeting "that talented and energetic soldier, General Turr" in
Venice
, and predicted that the hitherto impoverished
Patras
"will have a fine time when [Turr] begins the piercing of the Isthmus."
In 1888, the company constructing the canal failed, putting the project's completion in danger. Turr then led a successful effort to get governments and individuals to invest further sums, so that on 6 August 1893,
King George I of Greece
and his wife,
Queen Olga
could solemnly inaugurate the artificial waterway.
Also in partnership with Gerster, Turr formulated monumental plans of water-supply engineering in Hungary itself. As well as promoting the canalization of the
Danube
he was distinguished for supporting the newborn Hungarian national industry.
1890s Transylvania Controversy
[
edit
]
Like other Hungarian Nationalists, Turr in his later years was mainly concerned, not with confronting Austrian rule, a goal mostly if not completely achieved through the compromise of 1867, but in preserving Hungarian territory and interests against the demands of other nationalities.
In particular, Turr was opposed to the
Transylvanian Memorandum
movement of 1892, whose initiators demanded greater autonomy for Romanians, a demand seen as the prelude for altogether detaching
Transylvania
from Hungarian rule and therefore causing the Manifesto's organisers to be imprisoned by the Hungarian authorities.
In 1894 and 1895, Turr published articles condemning the
Memorandum
participants and their Bucharest-based partisans.
[17]
One of the latter,
V. A. Urechia
, answered in kind in a series of articles of his own, debating Turr on the pages of the European press and in various international forums.
"The Pacifist General" of the Universal Peace Congresses
[
edit
]
In 1878, the International Peace Congress ("Congres International de la Paix") was held in Paris, bringing together a great a variety of peace activists from all over Europe to debate ways of working to prevent war. One of the organizers, the Swiss Valentine de Sellon who would later write a book on the congress
[18]
noted with great satisfaction the participation of workers and women, and "even [of] a former general".
[19]
The former general referred to was Istvan Turr.
From that time until his death, Turr would increasingly become known in the role of "The Pacifist General", who became "a prominent personality of the international peace movement".
[20]
In the 1890s, Turr was "a regular fixture" in the annual
Universal Peace Congresses
, held every year at a different location. In 1896 he was elected President of the Seventh Congress, held at
Budapest
.
The well-known Austrian pacifist
Bertha Von Suttner
recalls in her memoires the great impression of meeting, on that occasion, "the old warrior, General Turr" (he was seventy one at the time) and hearing from him that "he had seen so much of war that he came to thoroughly detest it".
[21]
Turr recalled, and Von Suttner later published, some horrors that he had witnessed during the
Expedition of the Thousand
, which had not been published in 1860 itself. For example, entering a village and discovering the bodies of Bourbon soldiers who had been burned to death by the inhabitants. When Garibaldi became extremely furious with the villagers for having perpetrated such an act, they responded that it was done in retaliation for the soldiers having earlier set houses on fire in the village and prevented their inhabitants from escaping.
[22]
"Yellow Peril" and The Boxer Rebellion
[
edit
]
Turr was the first person known to have used in public the term "The
Yellow Peril
".
[23]
He used it in June 1895; in an article mainly concerned with
Otto von Bismarck
, there was a passage referring to Japan's recent victory over China where Turr remarked: "The 'yellow peril' is more threatening than ever. Japan has made in a few years as much progress as other nations have made in centuries." This was widely republished and translated throughout the world (the quotation here is from the text published at the time in an
Ohio
paper,
The Sandusky Register
).
[24]
A few months later, in September 1895,
Kaiser Wilhelm II
took up the term and made extensive use of it, being indeed often credited as its originator. As interpreted by the German Emperor (and subsequently, by many others) this implied a concrete threat by "Yellow Hordes" in the Far East, poised to invade and overwhelm the West by sheer numbers. This attitude to "Yellow-skinned people" had very concrete results in Wilhelm, a few years later, explicitly exhorting German troops involved in putting down the
Boxer Rebellion
in China to particularly ruthless and cruel conduct.
There is, however, no record of Turr sharing such attitudes. In fact, "General Etienne Turr, Buda" is duly noted in the list of participants at the Tenth
Universal Peace Congress
held at
Glasgow
in 1901, where that Western expedition against the
Boxer Rebellion
, in the previous year, was strongly condemned. In that gathering, Dr. Spence Watson got applause when stating at the podium that "
The swooping down of the Christian nations on China [was] the most detestable bit of greed that history records
". The conference as a whole adopted resolutions clearly condemning that Western intervention in China (though in milder terms) and stating that defence of Western missionaries active in non-European countries, or of converts to Christianity, was not an acceptable reason for waging war.
[25]
The transcript does not record, however, any speech made by Turr himself, who was then 76 and had recently lost his wife.
Last years
[
edit
]
Turr's wife Adelina died on 8 July 1899 at
Berck
, France. In his last years, Turr spent much of his time in Paris. He died in
Budapest
on 3 May 1908. His son Raoul predeceased him in 1906.
He was survived by his granddaughter Maria Stephanie Turr (1895?1994).
[26]
Today, there are only a few descendants of Istvan Turr and the granddaughter of Lucien Bonaparte, Adelina.
Gallery
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian, eds. (1996).
Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology
. London and New York: Routledge.
ISBN
0-415-06042-7
.
- ^
Paul Ginsborg, "Daniele Manin and the Venetian revolution of 1848?49", p. 345,
[1]
; Margaret Anne Doody, "Tropic of Venice", p. 34: "The Memorial to Lajos Winkler and his band of Hungarians who fought with the Venetians, on the wall of the post office behind St. Mark's, was only put up in 2002"
[2]
; commemorative plaque at
[3]
; 2008 memorial by the Italian-Hungarian Friendship Society
[4]
Archived
26 December 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
,
[5]
[
permanent dead link
]
- ^
"Narrative of the arrest, trial, & condemnation of Colonel Turr", published by Turr in London, 1856
[6]
- ^
"Servire un barbaro per odio contro un altro barbaro", quoted in
Giuseppe Cesare Abba
, "Storia dei Mille", 1904,
[7]
.
- ^
*
"Narrative of the arrest, trial, & condemnation of Colonel Turr" by Istvan Turr, 48 p English translation of the Austrian original, published in London, 1856.
- ^
The [British] National Archives, "Records created or inherited by the Home Office, Ministry of Home Security, and related bodies"
[8]
- ^
Frank Leward's letter to a friend, written at Lovere, July 29, 1859
[9]
.
- ^
"Turr (Tura), Stefano (Istvan) - Militare : Biografie Verbanesi"
.
www.verbanensia.org
.
- ^
"Debrecen.hu"
.
portal.debrecen.hu
. Archived from
the original
on 20 July 2011
. Retrieved
17 December
2009
.
- ^
"Adeline Bonaparte-Wyse, * 1838 | Geneall.net"
.
- ^
D. G. Paz, ‘Wyse, Sir Thomas (1791?1862)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008
accessed 7 Nov 2011
- ^
Prince Napoleon's papers, preserved at France's "Centre historique des Archives nationales" include files of correspondence with "Turr (Adeline)" and with "Turr (E.), general"
[10]
- ^
Relevant articles from "Il Lago Maggiore", 1862?1865 provided by "Magazzeno Storico Verbanese",
[11]
- ^
Besprechungen Ungarn 1848?1918, p.279
(Irina lonescu)
[12]
- ^
Andrew L. Simon
"Made in Hungary: Hungarian Coctributions to Universal Culture", p.291
"Archived copy"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 12 June 2007
. Retrieved
10 February
2008
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
Corporation, Bonnier (5 July 1902).
"Popular Science"
. Bonnier Corporation – via Google Books.
- ^
(in Romanian)
Nedelcu Oprea,
Vasile Alexandrescu Urechia. Preocup?ri bibliologice
Archived
1 January 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
, at the
V. A. Urechia Library of Gala?i
; retrieved 2 February 2008
- ^
"Congres international de la paix. Paris, 1878" by Valentine de Sellon
[13]
.
- ^
Quoted in "Patriotic pacifism: waging war on war in Europe, 1815?1914", by Sandi E. Cooper
[14]
- ^
An online biography where he is placed among other "noteworthy Hungarians" notes this as one of Turr's claims to fame
[15]
- ^
Quoted in Von Suttner's "The Records of an Eventful Life", Volume 2, Ch. XLIX
[16]
- ^
Von Suttner, Op. Cit.
- ^
"
"The Yellow Peril"
"
. 21 April 2009.
- ^
June 1895
Sandusky Register
article quoted in the "Phrases, sayings and idioms" website
[17]
, also here
[18]
Archived
15 December 2010 at the
Wayback Machine
.
- ^
"Proceedings of the Tenth Universal Peace Congress, held in St. Andrew's, Glasgow"
[19]
- ^
"Maria Stephanie Turr, * 1895 | Geneall.net"
.
External links
[
edit
]
- Online biography (English)
- Online biography (Italian)
- Online biography (Hungarian)
- "Istvan Turr: una biografia politica" by Pasquale Fornaro
- "Narrative of the arrest, trial, & condemnation of Colonel Turr" by Istvan Turr, 48 p brochure published in London, 1856.
- The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Slingsby Duncombe, Vol. 2, including detailed account of contacts and correspondence with Istvan Turr (here usually spelled "tiir" or "Colonel Turk")
- Frank Leward' letter of July 29, 1859, recording the circumstances of Turr's wounding
- Bilingual Italian-English page on Garibaldi's campaign, including extensive reference to Turr and other Hungarians
- "The Illustrated London News", 1860 portrait of General Turr, Garibaldi Chief Aide-de-Camp
- "From Florence: The Question of an Italian War with Austria, Gen. Turr's Mission to Garibaldi, The Hungarian Question, The Siege of Gaeta", New York Times, February 19, 1861
- Photo of Istvan Turr in Italian General's uniform, with numerous decorations
- "Stefan Turr, the emissary of Napoleon and Bismark", New York Times, August 29, 1870 (during the French-Prussian War), copied from the Pall Mall Magazine of August 18
- Online copy of the April 30, 1876 Borsszem Janko, a Hungarian illustrated magazine, with a cartoon of Turr (on p.7) and an item making fun of Turr's canal-building schemes
- Turr's conversations with the Austrian Pacifist Bertha Von Suttner, recalling various parts of his life, as recorded in Von Suttner's "The Records of an Eventful Life", Volume 2, Ch. XLIX
- "Gen. Stephen Turr Dead; Was Garibaldian Veteran and Confidential Adviser of Kossuth": obituary in New York Times, May 4, 1908
- Istvan Turr Museum
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