Immunity strategy in living beings
| This article needs to be
updated
.
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
(
March 2024
)
|
Innate immune system
The
innate immune system
or
nonspecific immune system
[1]
is one of the two main immunity strategies (the other being the
adaptive immune system
) in
vertebrates
. The innate immune system is an alternate defense strategy and is the dominant immune system response found in
plants
,
fungi
,
prokaryotes
, and
invertebrates
(see
Beyond vertebrates
).
[2]
The major functions of the innate immune system are to:
Anatomical barriers
[
edit
]
Anatomical barriers include physical, chemical and biological barriers. The epithelial surfaces form a physical barrier that is impermeable to most infectious agents, acting as the first line of defense against invading organisms.
[3]
Desquamation
(shedding) of skin epithelium also helps remove bacteria and other infectious agents that have adhered to the epithelial surface. Lack of blood vessels, the inability of the epidermis to retain moisture, and the presence of
sebaceous glands
in the dermis, produces an environment unsuitable for the survival of
microbes
.
[3]
In the gastrointestinal and
respiratory tract
, movement due to peristalsis or cilia, respectively, helps remove infectious agents.
[3]
Also,
mucus
traps infectious agents.
[3]
Gut flora
can prevent the colonization of pathogenic bacteria by secreting toxic substances or by competing with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients or cell surface attachment sites.
[3]
The flushing action of tears and saliva helps prevent infection of the eyes and mouth.
[3]
Anatomical barrier
|
Additional defense mechanisms
|
Skin
|
Sweat (including
dermcidin
),
cathelicidin
, desquamation, flushing,
[3]
organic acids,
[3]
skin flora
|
Gastrointestinal tract
|
Peristalsis
,
gastric acid
,
bile acids
,
digestive enzyme
,
flushing,
thiocyanate
,
[3]
defensins
,
[3]
gut flora
,
[3]
lysozymes
|
Respiratory airways
and
lungs
|
Mucociliary escalator,
[4]
surfactant
,
[3]
defensins
[3]
|
Nasopharynx
|
Mucus, saliva,
lysozyme
[3]
|
Eyes
|
Tears
[3]
|
Blood?brain barrier
|
endothelial cells
(via passive
diffusion
/
osmosis
& active selection).
P-glycoprotein
(mechanism by which
active transportation
is mediated)
|
Inflammation
[
edit
]
Inflammation
is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. Inflammation is stimulated by chemical factors released by injured cells. It establishes a physical barrier against the spread of infection and promotes healing of any damaged tissue following pathogen clearance.
[5]
The process of acute inflammation is initiated by cells already present in all tissues, mainly resident
macrophages
,
dendritic cells
,
histiocytes
,
Kupffer cells
, and
mast cells
. These cells present receptors contained on the surface or within the cell, named
pattern recognition receptors
(PRRs), which recognize molecules that are broadly shared by
pathogens
but distinguishable from host molecules, collectively referred to as
pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs). At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of their PRRs recognizes a PAMP) and release
inflammatory mediators
, like cytokines and chemokines, which are responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. PRR activation and its cellular consequences have been well-characterized as methods of inflammatory cell death, which include
pyroptosis
,
necroptosis
, and
PANoptosis
. These cell death pathways help clear infected or aberrant cells and release cellular contents and inflammatory mediators.
Chemical factors produced during inflammation (
histamine
,
bradykinin
,
serotonin
,
leukotrienes
, and
prostaglandins
) sensitize
pain receptors
, cause local
vasodilation
of the
blood vessels
, and attract phagocytes, especially neutrophils.
[5]
Neutrophils then trigger other parts of the immune system by releasing factors that summon additional leukocytes and lymphocytes.
Cytokines
produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system mediate the inflammatory response. These cytokines include
TNF
,
HMGB1
, and
IL-1
.
[6]
The inflammatory response is characterized by the following symptoms:
- redness of the skin
, due to locally increased blood circulation;
- heat, either increased local temperature, such as a warm feeling around a localized infection, or a systemic
fever
;
- swelling of affected tissues, such as the upper throat during the
common cold
or joints affected by
rheumatoid arthritis
;
- increased production of mucus, which can cause symptoms like a
runny nose
or a
productive cough
;
- pain, either local pain, such as
painful joints
or a
sore throat
, or affecting the whole body, such as
body aches
; and
- possible dysfunction of involved organs/tissues.
Complement system
[
edit
]
The
complement system
is a
biochemical cascade
of the immune system that helps, or "complements", the ability of antibodies to clear pathogens or mark them for destruction by other cells. The cascade is composed of many plasma proteins, synthesized in the
liver
, primarily by
hepatocytes
. The proteins work together to:
- trigger the recruitment of inflammatory cells
- "tag" pathogens for destruction by other cells by
opsonizing
, or coating, the surface of the pathogen
- form holes in the plasma membrane of the pathogen, resulting in
cytolysis
of the pathogen cell, causing its death
- rid the body of neutralised antigen-antibody complexes.
The three different complement systems are classical, alternative and lectin.
- Classical: starts when antibody binds to bacteria
- Alternative: starts "spontaneously"
- Lectin: starts when
lectins
bind to
mannose
on bacteria
Elements of the complement cascade can be found in many non-mammalian species including
plants
,
birds
,
fish
, and some species of
invertebrates
.
[7]
White blood cells
[
edit
]
A
scanning electron microscope
image of normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several knobby white blood cells including
lymphocytes
, a
monocyte
, a
neutrophil
, and many small disc-shape
platelets
.
White blood cells (WBCs) are also known as
leukocytes
. Most leukocytes differ from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, their function is similar to that of independent, single-cell organisms. Most leukocytes are able to move freely and interact with and capture cellular debris, foreign particles, and invading microorganisms (although
macrophages
,
mast cells
, and
dendritic cells
are less mobile). Unlike many other cells, most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of multipotent
hematopoietic stem cells
present in
bone marrow
.
[8]
[9]
The innate leukocytes include:
natural killer cells
, mast cells,
eosinophils
,
basophils
; and the
phagocytic cells
include
macrophages
,
neutrophils
, and dendritic cells, and function within the immune system by identifying and eliminating pathogens that might cause infection.
[2]
Mast cells
[
edit
]
Mast cells are a type of innate immune cell that resides in connective tissue and in mucous membranes. They are intimately associated with wound healing and defense against pathogens, but are also often associated with
allergy
and
anaphylaxis
.
[5]
When activated, mast cells rapidly release characteristic granules, rich in
histamine
and
heparin
, along with various hormonal mediators and
chemokines
, or chemotactic
cytokines
into the environment. Histamine dilates
blood vessels
, causing the characteristic signs of inflammation, and recruits neutrophils and macrophages.
[5]
Phagocytes
[
edit
]
The word 'phagocyte' literally means 'eating cell'. These are immune cells that engulf, or '
phagocytose
', pathogens or particles. To engulf a particle or pathogen, a phagocyte extends portions of its
plasma membrane
, wrapping the membrane around the particle until it is enveloped (i.e., the particle is now inside the cell). Once inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside a
phagosome
, which merges with a
lysosome
.
[2]
The lysosome contains enzymes and acids that kill and digest the particle or organism. In general, phagocytes patrol the body searching for pathogens, but are also able to react to a group of highly specialized molecular signals produced by other cells, called
cytokines
. The phagocytic cells of the immune system include macrophages,
neutrophils
, and dendritic cells.
Phagocytosis of the hosts' own cells is common as part of regular tissue development and maintenance. When host cells die, either by
apoptosis
or by cell injury due to an infection, phagocytic cells are responsible for their removal from the affected site.
[9]
By helping to remove dead cells preceding growth and development of new healthy cells, phagocytosis is an important part of the healing process following tissue injury.
A macrophage
Macrophages
[
edit
]
Macrophages, from the Greek, meaning "large eaters", are large phagocytic leukocytes, which are able to move beyond the vascular system by migrating through the walls of
capillary
vessels and entering the areas between cells in pursuit of invading pathogens. In tissues, organ-specific macrophages are differentiated from phagocytic cells present in the blood called
monocytes
. Macrophages are the most efficient phagocytes and can phagocytose substantial numbers of bacteria or other cells or microbes.
[2]
The binding of bacterial molecules to receptors on the surface of a macrophage triggers it to engulf and destroy the bacteria through the generation of a "
respiratory burst
", causing the release of
reactive oxygen species
. Pathogens also stimulate the macrophage to produce chemokines, which summon other cells to the site of infection.
[2]
Neutrophils
[
edit
]
A neutrophil
Neutrophils, along with
eosinophils
and
basophils
, are known as
granulocytes
due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, or as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) due to their distinctive lobed
nuclei
. Neutrophil granules contain a variety of toxic substances that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi. Similar to macrophages, neutrophils attack pathogens by activating a
respiratory burst
. The main products of the neutrophil respiratory burst are strong
oxidizing agents
including
hydrogen peroxide
,
free oxygen radicals
and
hypochlorite
. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50?60% of the total circulating leukocytes, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the site of an infection.
[5]
The bone marrow of a normal healthy adult produces more than 100 billion neutrophils per day, and more than 10 times that many per day during
acute
inflammation.
[5]
Dendritic cells
[
edit
]
Dendritic cells (DCs) are phagocytic cells present in tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the
skin
(where they are often called
Langerhans cells
), and the inner mucosal lining of the
nose
,
lungs
,
stomach
, and
intestines
.
[9]
They are named for their resemblance to
neuronal
dendrites
, but dendritic cells are not connected to the
nervous system
. Dendritic cells are very important in the process of
antigen presentation
, and serve as a link between the innate and
adaptive immune systems
.
An eosinophil
Basophils and eosinophils
[
edit
]
Basophils and eosinophils are cells related to the neutrophil. When activated by a pathogen encounter,
histamine
-releasing basophils are important in the defense against
parasites
and play a role in
allergic reactions
, such as
asthma
.
[2]
Upon activation, eosinophils secrete a range of highly
toxic
proteins and free radicals that are highly effective in killing parasites, but may also damage tissue during an allergic reaction. Activation and release of toxins by eosinophils are, therefore, tightly regulated to prevent any inappropriate tissue destruction.
[5]
Natural killer cells
[
edit
]
Natural killer cells
(NK cells) do not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as
tumor
cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self". This term describes cells with abnormally low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (
major histocompatibility complex
) - a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells.
[10]
They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self". The MHC makeup on the surface of damaged cells is altered and the NK cells become activated by recognizing this. Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell
immunoglobulin
receptors (KIR) that slow the reaction of NK cells. The
NK-92
cell line does not express KIR and is developed for tumor therapy.
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
γδ T cells
[
edit
]
Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant
T cell receptors
(TCRs), such as
CD1d
-restricted
Natural Killer T cells
, γδ T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity. γδ T cells may be considered a component of
adaptive immunity
in that they
rearrange TCR genes
to produce junctional diversity and develop a memory
phenotype
. The various subsets may be considered part of the innate immune system where a restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as a
pattern recognition receptor
. For example, according to this paradigm, large numbers of Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to
common molecules
produced by microbes, and highly restricted intraepithelial Vδ1 T cells will respond to stressed epithelial cells.
Other vertebrate mechanisms
[
edit
]
The
coagulation system
overlaps with the immune system. Some products of the coagulation system can contribute to non-specific defenses via their ability to increase
vascular permeability
and act as
chemotactic agents
for
phagocytic cells
. In addition, some of the products of the coagulation system are directly
antimicrobial
. For example,
beta-lysine
, a protein produced by platelets during
coagulation
, can cause
lysis
of many
Gram-positive bacteria
by acting as a cationic detergent.
[3]
Many
acute-phase proteins
of
inflammation
are involved in the coagulation system.
Increased levels of
lactoferrin
and
transferrin
inhibit bacterial growth by binding iron, an essential bacterial nutrient.
[3]
Neural regulation
[
edit
]
The innate immune response to infectious and sterile injury is modulated by neural circuits that control cytokine production period. The
inflammatory reflex
is a prototypical neural circuit that controls cytokine production in the
spleen
.
[15]
Action potentials transmitted via the
vagus nerve
to the spleen mediate the release of
acetylcholine
, the
neurotransmitter
that inhibits cytokine release by interacting with alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (
CHRNA7
) expressed on cytokine-producing cells.
[16]
The motor arc of the
inflammatory reflex
is termed the
cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway
.
Pathogen-specificity
[
edit
]
The parts of the innate immune system display specificity for different pathogens.
Immune evasion
[
edit
]
Innate immune system cells prevent free growth of microorganisms within the body, but many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade it.
[21]
[22]
One strategy is intracellular replication, as practised by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
, or wearing a protective capsule, which prevents lysis by complement and by phagocytes, as in
Salmonella
.
[23]
Bacteroides
species are normally
mutualistic
bacteria, making up a substantial portion of the mammalian
gastrointestinal flora
.
[24]
Species such as
B. fragilis
are
opportunistic pathogens
, causing infections of the
peritoneal cavity
. They inhibit phagocytosis by affecting the phagocytes receptors used to engulf bacteria. They may also mimic host cells so the immune system does not recognize them as foreign.
Staphylococcus aureus
inhibits the ability of the phagocyte to respond to chemokine signals.
M. tuberculosis
,
Streptococcus pyogenes
, and
Bacillus anthracis
utilize mechanisms that directly kill the phagocyte.
[
citation needed
]
Bacteria and fungi may form complex
biofilms
, protecting them from immune cells and proteins; biofilms are present in the chronic
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
and
Burkholderia cenocepacia
infections characteristic of
cystic fibrosis
.
[25]
Viruses
[
edit
]
Type I
interferons
(IFN), secreted mainly by
dendritic cells
,
[26]
play a central role in antiviral host defense and a cell's antiviral state.
[27]
Viral components are recognized by different receptors:
Toll-like receptors
are located in the endosomal membrane and recognize double-stranded
RNA
(dsRNA), MDA5 and RIG-I receptors are located in the cytoplasm and recognize long dsRNA and phosphate-containing dsRNA respectively.
[28]
When the
cytoplasmic
receptors
MDA5
and
RIG-I
recognize a virus the conformation between the
caspase-recruitment domain
(CARD) and the CARD-containing adaptor MAVS changes. In parallel, when TLRs in the endocytic compartments recognize a virus the activation of the adaptor protein
TRIF
is induced. Both pathways converge in the recruitment and activation of the IKKε/TBK-1 complex, inducing
dimerization
of
transcription factors
IRF3
and
IRF7
, which are translocated in the nucleus, where they induce IFN production with the presence of a particular transcription factor and activate transcription factor 2. IFN is secreted through secretory
vesicles
, where it can activate receptors on both the cell it was released from (
autocrine
) or nearby cells (paracrine). This induces hundreds of interferon-stimulated genes to be expressed. This leads to
antiviral
protein production, such as
protein kinase R
, which inhibits viral protein synthesis, or the
2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase
family, which degrades viral RNA.
[27]
Some viruses evade this by producing molecules that interfere with IFN production. For example, the
Influenza A
virus produces
NS1
protein, which can bind to host and viral RNA, interact with immune signaling proteins or block their activation by
ubiquitination
, thus inhibiting type I IFN production.
[29]
Influenza A also blocks protein kinase R activation and establishment of the antiviral state.
[30]
The dengue virus also inhibits type I IFN production by blocking
IRF-3
phosophorylation
using NS2B3
protease
complex.
[31]
Beyond vertebrates
[
edit
]
Prokaryotes
[
edit
]
Bacteria
(and perhaps other
prokaryotic
organisms), utilize a unique defense mechanism, called the
restriction modification system
to protect themselves from pathogens, such as
bacteriophages
. In this system, bacteria produce
enzymes
, called
restriction endonucleases
, that attack and destroy specific regions of the viral
DNA
of invading bacteriophages.
Methylation
of the host's own DNA marks it as "self" and prevents it from being attacked by endonucleases.
[32]
Restriction endonucleases and the restriction modification system exist exclusively in prokaryotes.
[33]
Invertebrates
[
edit
]
Invertebrates
do not possess lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral immune system, and it is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates.
[34]
Nevertheless, invertebrates possess mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity.
Pattern recognition receptors
(PRRs) are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with microbial pathogens. TLRs are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all
coelomates
(animals with a body-cavity), including humans.
[35]
The
complement system
exists in most life forms. Some invertebrates, including various insects,
crabs
, and
worms
utilize a modified form of the complement response known as the
prophenoloxidase
(proPO) system.
[34]
Antimicrobial peptides
are an evolutionarily
conserved
component of the innate immune response found among all classes of life and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic
immunity
. Several species of
insect
produce antimicrobial peptides known as
defensins
and
cecropins
.
Proteolytic cascades
[
edit
]
In invertebrates, PRRs trigger
proteolytic
cascades that degrade proteins and control many of the mechanisms of the innate immune system of invertebrates?including
hemolymph
coagulation and
melanization
. Proteolytic cascades are important components of the invertebrate immune system because they are turned on more rapidly than other innate immune reactions because they do not rely on gene changes. Proteolytic cascades function in both vertebrate and invertebrates, even though different proteins are used throughout the cascades.
[36]
Clotting mechanisms
[
edit
]
In the hemolymph, which makes up the fluid in the circulatory system of
arthropods
, a gel-like fluid surrounds pathogen invaders, similar to the way blood does in other animals. Various proteins and mechanisms are involved in invertebrate clotting. In crustaceans,
transglutaminase
from blood cells and mobile plasma proteins make up the clotting system, where the transglutaminase polymerizes 210 kDa subunits of a plasma-clotting protein. On the other hand, in the
horseshoe crab
clotting system, components of proteolytic cascades are stored as inactive forms in granules of hemocytes, which are released when foreign molecules, like
lipopolysaccharides
enter.
[36]
Plants
[
edit
]
Members of every class of pathogen that infect humans also infect plants. Although the exact pathogenic species vary with the infected species, bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and insects can all cause
plant disease
. As with animals, plants attacked by insects or other pathogens use a set of complex
metabolic
responses that lead to the formation of defensive chemical compounds that fight infection or make the plant less attractive to insects and other
herbivores
.
[37]
(see:
plant defense against herbivory
).
Like invertebrates, plants neither generate antibody or T-cell responses nor possess mobile cells that detect and attack pathogens. In addition, in case of infection, parts of some plants are treated as disposable and replaceable, in ways that few animals can. Walling off or discarding a part of a plant helps stop infection spread.
[37]
Most plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals sent throughout a plant. Plants use PRRs to recognize conserved microbial signatures. This recognition triggers an immune response. The first plant receptors of conserved microbial signatures were identified in rice (
XA21
, 1995)
[38]
[39]
and in
Arabidopsis
(
FLS2
, 2000).
[40]
Plants also carry immune receptors that recognize variable pathogen effectors. These include the NBS-LRR class of proteins. When a part of a plant becomes infected with a microbial or viral pathogen, in case of an incompatible interaction triggered by specific
elicitors
, the plant produces a localized
hypersensitive response
(HR), in which cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent spread to other parts of the plant. HR has some similarities to animal
pyroptosis
, such as a requirement of
caspase
-1-like proteolytic activity of
VPEγ
, a
cysteine protease
that regulates cell disassembly during cell death.
[41]
"Resistance" (R) proteins, encoded by
R genes
, are widely present in plants and detect pathogens. These proteins contain domains similar to the
NOD Like Receptors
and TLRs.
Systemic acquired resistance
(SAR) is a type of defensive response that renders the entire plant resistant to a broad spectrum of infectious agents.
[42]
SAR involves the production of
chemical messengers
, such as
salicylic acid
or
jasmonic acid
. Some of these travel through the plant and signal other cells to produce defensive compounds to protect uninfected parts, e.g., leaves.
[43]
Salicylic acid itself, although indispensable for expression of SAR, is not the translocated signal responsible for the systemic response. Recent evidence indicates a role for
jasmonates
in transmission of the signal to distal portions of the plant.
RNA silencing
mechanisms are important in the plant systemic response, as they can block virus replication.
[44]
The
jasmonic acid
response
is stimulated in leaves damaged by insects, and involves the production of
methyl jasmonate
.
[37]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Immune response: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia"
.
medlineplus.gov
. Retrieved
7 November
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Janeway C
, Paul C, Travers M, Walport M, Shlomchik M (2001).
Immunobiology
(Fifth ed.). New York and London: Garland Science.
ISBN
0-8153-4101-6
.
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
Mayer G.
"Innate (Non-Specific) Immunity"
.
Immunology Section of Microbiology and Immunology On-line
. University of South Carolina.
- ^
"Mucociliary escalator"
.
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary
(3rd ed.). Elsevier, Inc. 2007
. Retrieved
11 June
2018
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Stvrtinova V, Jakubovsky J, Hulin I (1995).
"Inflammation and Fever"
.
Pathophysiology: Principles of Disease
. Computing Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences: Academic Electronic Press. Archived from
the original
on 18 June 2007.
- ^
Lotze MT, Tracey KJ (April 2005). "High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1): nuclear weapon in the immune arsenal".
Nature Reviews. Immunology
.
5
(4): 331?342.
doi
:
10.1038/nri1594
.
PMID
15803152
.
S2CID
27691169
.
- ^
Janeway CA, Travers P, Walport M, Shlomchik MJ (2005).
Immunobiology
(6th ed.). Garland Science.
ISBN
0-443-07310-4
.
- ^
Monga I, Kaur K, Dhanda S (March 2022). "Revisiting hematopoiesis: applications of the bulk and single-cell transcriptomics dissecting transcriptional heterogeneity in hematopoietic stem cells".
Briefings in Functional Genomics
.
21
(3): 159?176.
doi
:
10.1093/bfgp/elac002
.
PMID
35265979
.
- ^
a
b
c
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walters P (2002).
Molecular Biology of the Cell
(Fourth ed.). New York and London: Garland Science.
ISBN
0815332181
.
- ^
Janeway C (2005).
Immunobiology
(6th ed.). Garland Science.
ISBN
0-443-07310-4
.
- ^
Arai S, Meagher R, Swearingen M, Myint H, Rich E, Martinson J, Klingemann H (2008). "Infusion of the allogeneic cell line NK-92 in patients with advanced renal cell cancer or melanoma: a phase I trial".
Cytotherapy
.
10
(6): 625?632.
doi
:
10.1080/14653240802301872
.
PMID
18836917
.
- ^
Tonn T, Becker S, Esser R, Schwabe D, Seifried E (August 2001). "Cellular immunotherapy of malignancies using the clonal natural killer cell line NK-92".
Journal of Hematotherapy & Stem Cell Research
.
10
(4): 535?544.
doi
:
10.1089/15258160152509145
.
PMID
11522236
.
- ^
Gong JH, Maki G, Klingemann HG (April 1994). "Characterization of a human cell line (NK-92) with phenotypical and functional characteristics of activated natural killer cells".
Leukemia
.
8
(4): 652?658.
PMID
8152260
.
- ^
Klingemann HG (2010). "Development and testing of NK cell lines". In Lotze MT, Thompson AW (eds.).
Natural killer cells - Basic Science and Clinical applications
. pp. 169?175.
- ^
Tracey KJ (February 2007).
"Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway"
.
The Journal of Clinical Investigation
.
117
(2): 289?296.
doi
:
10.1172/JCI30555
.
PMC
1783813
.
PMID
17273548
.
- ^
Tracey KJ (June 2009).
"Reflex control of immunity"
.
Nature Reviews. Immunology
.
9
(6): 418?428.
doi
:
10.1038/nri2566
.
PMC
4535331
.
PMID
19461672
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Doan T (2008).
Immunology
. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 172.
ISBN
978-0-7817-9543-2
.
- ^
Agrawal P, Nawadkar R, Ojha H, Kumar J, Sahu A (16 June 2017).
"Complement Evasion Strategies of Viruses: An Overview"
.
Frontiers in Microbiology
.
8
: 1117.
doi
:
10.3389/fmicb.2017.01117
.
PMC
5472698
.
PMID
28670306
.
- ^
Croize J, Arvieux J, Berche P, Colomb MG (December 1993).
"Activation of the human complement alternative pathway by Listeria monocytogenes: evidence for direct binding and proteolysis of the C3 component on bacteria"
.
Infection and Immunity
.
61
(12): 5134?5139.
doi
:
10.1128/iai.61.12.5134-5139.1993
.
PMC
281293
.
PMID
8225590
.
- ^
Ma LL, Wang CL, Neely GG, Epelman S, Krensky AM, Mody CH (September 2004).
"NK cells use perforin rather than granulysin for anticryptococcal activity"
.
Journal of Immunology
.
173
(5): 3357?3365.
doi
:
10.4049/jimmunol.173.5.3357
.
PMID
15322199
.
S2CID
43258057
.
- ^
Kennedy A.
"Immune Evasion by bacteria"
.
Crohnie
. Archived from
the original
on 10 October 2006
. Retrieved
25 October
2006
.
- ^
Finlay BB, McFadden G (February 2006).
"Anti-immunology: evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens"
.
Cell
.
124
(4): 767?782.
doi
:
10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.034
.
PMID
16497587
.
S2CID
15418509
.
- ^
Finlay BB, Falkow S (June 1997).
"Common themes in microbial pathogenicity revisited"
.
Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
.
61
(2): 136?169.
doi
:
10.1128/mmbr.61.2.136-169.1997
.
PMC
232605
.
PMID
9184008
.
- ^
Dorland WA, ed. (2003).
Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary
(30th ed.). W.B. Saunders.
ISBN
0-7216-0146-4
.
- ^
Kobayashi H (2005). "Airway biofilms: implications for pathogenesis and therapy of respiratory tract infections".
Treatments in Respiratory Medicine
.
4
(4): 241?253.
doi
:
10.2165/00151829-200504040-00003
.
PMID
16086598
.
S2CID
31788349
.
- ^
Le Bon A, Tough DF (August 2002). "Links between innate and adaptive immunity via type I interferon".
Current Opinion in Immunology
.
14
(4): 432?436.
doi
:
10.1016/s0952-7915(02)00354-0
.
PMID
12088676
.
- ^
a
b
Akira S, Uematsu S, Takeuchi O (February 2006).
"Pathogen recognition and innate immunity"
.
Cell
.
124
(4): 783?801.
doi
:
10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.015
.
PMID
16497588
.
S2CID
14357403
.
- ^
Baum A, Garcia-Sastre A (May 2010).
"Induction of type I interferon by RNA viruses: cellular receptors and their substrates"
.
Amino Acids
.
38
(5): 1283?1299.
doi
:
10.1007/s00726-009-0374-0
.
PMC
2860555
.
PMID
19882216
.
- ^
Heaton SM, Borg NA, Dixit VM (January 2016).
"Ubiquitin in the activation and attenuation of innate antiviral immunity"
.
The Journal of Experimental Medicine
.
213
(1): 1?13.
doi
:
10.1084/jem.20151531
.
PMC
4710203
.
PMID
26712804
.
- ^
Garcia-Sastre A, Egorov A, Matassov D, Brandt S, Levy DE, Durbin JE, et al. (December 1998).
"Influenza A virus lacking the NS1 gene replicates in interferon-deficient systems"
.
Virology
.
252
(2): 324?330.
doi
:
10.1006/viro.1998.9508
.
PMID
9878611
.
- ^
Rodriguez-Madoz JR, Belicha-Villanueva A, Bernal-Rubio D, Ashour J, Ayllon J, Fernandez-Sesma A (October 2010).
"Inhibition of the type I interferon response in human dendritic cells by dengue virus infection requires a catalytically active NS2B3 complex"
.
Journal of Virology
.
84
(19): 9760?9774.
doi
:
10.1128/jvi.01051-10
.
PMC
2937777
.
PMID
20660196
.
- ^
Peters P.
"Restriction Enzymes"
.
Access Excellence Classic Collection Background Paper
.
- ^
Oliveira PH, Touchon M, Rocha EP (2014).
"The interplay of restriction-modification systems with mobile genetic elements and their prokaryotic hosts"
.
Nucleic Acids Research
.
42
(16): 10618?10631.
doi
:
10.1093/nar/gku734
.
PMC
4176335
.
PMID
25120263
.
- ^
a
b
Beck G, Habicht GS (November 1996). "Immunity and the invertebrates".
Scientific American
.
275
(5): 60?63, 66.
Bibcode
:
1996SciAm.275e..60B
.
doi
:
10.1038/scientificamerican1196-60
.
PMID
8875808
.
- ^
Imler JL, Hoffmann JA (July 2001). "Toll receptors in innate immunity".
Trends in Cell Biology
.
11
(7): 304?311.
doi
:
10.1016/S0962-8924(01)02004-9
.
PMID
11413042
.
- ^
a
b
Cerenius L, Kawabata S, Lee BL, Nonaka M, Soderhall K (October 2010). "Proteolytic cascades and their involvement in invertebrate immunity".
Trends in Biochemical Sciences
.
35
(10): 575?583.
doi
:
10.1016/j.tibs.2010.04.006
.
PMID
20541942
.
- ^
a
b
c
Schneider D (2005).
"Plant immune responses"
. Stanford University Department of Microbiology and Immunology. Archived from
the original
on 9 June 2007.
- ^
Song WY, Wang GL, Chen LL, Kim HS, Pi LY, Holsten T, et al. (December 1995).
"A receptor kinase-like protein encoded by the rice disease resistance gene, Xa21"
.
Science
.
270
(5243): 1804?1806.
Bibcode
:
1995Sci...270.1804S
.
doi
:
10.1126/science.270.5243.1804
.
PMID
8525370
.
S2CID
10548988
.
- ^
Ronald PC, Beutler B (November 2010).
"Plant and animal sensors of conserved microbial signatures"
.
Science
.
330
(6007): 1061?1064.
Bibcode
:
2010Sci...330.1061R
.
doi
:
10.1126/science.1189468
.
PMID
21097929
.
S2CID
18311102
.
- ^
Gomez-Gomez L, Boller T (June 2000).
"FLS2: an LRR receptor-like kinase involved in the perception of the bacterial elicitor flagellin in Arabidopsis"
.
Molecular Cell
.
5
(6): 1003?1011.
doi
:
10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80265-8
.
PMID
10911994
.
- ^
Rojo E, Martin R, Carter C, Zouhar J, Pan S, Plotnikova J, et al. (November 2004).
"VPEgamma exhibits a caspase-like activity that contributes to defense against pathogens"
.
Current Biology
.
14
(21): 1897?1906.
Bibcode
:
2004CBio...14.1897R
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.cub.2004.09.056
.
PMID
15530390
.
S2CID
3231431
.
- ^
Chitosan#Agricultural and horticultural use
- ^
Linden JC, Stoner RJ, Knutson KW, Gardner-Hughes CA (2000).
"Organic disease control elicitors"
(PDF)
.
Agro Food Industry Hi-Tech
.
11
(5): 32?34. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 6 July 2007.
- ^
Baulcombe D (September 2004). "RNA silencing in plants".
Nature
.
431
(7006): 356?363.
Bibcode
:
2004Natur.431..356B
.
doi
:
10.1038/nature02874
.
PMID
15372043
.
S2CID
4421274
.
External links
[
edit
]
- Breuer K, Foroushani AK, Laird MR, Chen C, Sribnaia A, Lo R, Winsor GL, Hancock RE, Brinkman FS, Lynn DJ.
"InnateDB"
.
database of proteins and their interactions in innate immune
system
- Innate Immune System Animation
XVIVO Scientific Animation