Overview of immigration to Turkey
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Immigration to Turkey
is the process by which people
migrate
to
Turkey
to reside in the country. Many, but not all, become
Turkish citizens
. After the
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
and following
Turkish War of Independence
, an
exodus
by the large portion of
Turkish
(
Turkic
) and
Muslim
peoples from the
Balkans
(
Balkan Turks
,
Albanians
,
Bosniaks
,
Pomaks
),
Caucasus
(
Abkhazians
,
Ajarians
, '
Circassians
',
Chechens
),
Crimea
(
Crimean Tatar diaspora
), and
Greece
(
Muslim Roma
,
[1]
[2]
Greek Muslims
,
Vallahades
,
Nantinets
,
Cretan Turks
) took refuge in present-day Turkey and moulded the country's fundamental features. Trends of immigration towards Turkey continue to this day, although the motives are more varied and are usually in line with the patterns of global
immigration
movements.
Turkey's migrant crisis
is a following period since the 2010s, characterized by high numbers of people arriving and settling in Turkey.
Names
[
edit
]
There are three Names in Turkish for Balkan Turks and other Muslims of former Ottoman Empire to describe the Immigrants who went to Turkey.
- Muhacir
(Muslims from Balkans and Caucasus in Ottoman Empire)
- Mubadil
(Muslims from Greece in 1923 from Greece to Turkey)
- Gocmen
(Muslims from Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Cyprus, Greece after 1930 to Turkey).
[3]
History
[
edit
]
Historically, the
Ottoman Empire
was the primary destination for
Muslim
refugees from areas conquered?or re-conquered?by Christian powers, notably
Russia
in the
Caucasus
and
Black Sea
areas,
Austria-Hungary
,
Greece
,
Bulgaria
,
Serbia
,
Montenegro
(later
Yugoslavia
) and
Romania
in the
Balkans
. Nonetheless, the Ottoman Empire was also a popular destination for non-Muslim refugees: the most obvious examples are the
Sephardic Jews
given refuge mainly in the 16th century with the
expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal
(
as well as before and afterwards
), whose descendants form the core of the community of
Jews in Turkey
today; and the village of
Polonezkoy
in
Istanbul
. From the 1930s to 2016 migration added two million Muslims in Turkey. The majority of these immigrants were the
Balkan Turks
who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands.
[4]
New waves of Turks and other Muslims expelled from
Bulgaria
and
Yugoslavia
between 1951 and 1953 were followed to Turkey by another exodus from Bulgaria in 1983?89, bringing the total of immigrants to nearly ten million people.
[5]
More recently,
Meskhetian Turks
have emigrated to Turkey from the former
Soviet Union
states (particularly in
Ukraine
? after the
Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
in 2014), and many
Iraqi Turkmen
and
Syrian Turkmen
have taken refuge in Turkey due to the recent
Iraq War
(2003-2011) and
Syrian Civil War
(2011?present).
Pre-Colonial Migration Crisis, 1522?1701
[
edit
]
Turkey's first migration crisis began in 1522, when
Ibn Kemal
(an Ottoman Historian) recorded his findings of an estimated 6.2 million Turkish citizens migrating from Cyrenaican, Middle Arabian, Iraqi and Lebanese territories to northern and southern European territories, such as Spain, Italy, France, and to an extent Germany. The cause for the mass immigration is thought to be due to the governmental suppression of rights for non-Turkish and Anatolian Arabians.
[
citation needed
]
Treaty of Lausanne initial borders
[
edit
]
A decision taken by the Turkish Government at the end of 1925, for instance, noted that the Turks of Cyprus had, according to the
Treaty of Lausanne
, the right to emigrate to the republic, and therefore, families that so emigrated would be given a house and sufficient land.
[6]
Economic motives played an important part in the Turkish Cypriot migration wave as conditions for the poor in Cyprus during the 1920s were especially harsh. Enthusiasm to emigrate to Turkey was inflated by the euphoria that followed the creation of the Republic of Turkey and later of promises of assistance to Turks who emigrated. The precise number of those who emigrated to Turkey remains unknown.
[7]
The press in Turkey reported in mid-1927 that of those who had opted for Turkish nationality, 5,000?6,000 Turkish Cypriots had already settled in Turkey. However, many
Turkish Cypriots
had already emigrated even before the rights accorded to them under the Treaty of Lausanne had come into force.
[8]
St. John-Jones tried to accurately estimate the true demographic impact of Turkish Cypriot emigration to Turkey between 1881?1931. He supposed that:
[I]f the Turkish-Cypriot community had, like the Greek-Cypriots, increased by 101 per cent between 1881 and 1931, it would have totalled 91,300 in 1931 ? 27,000 more than the number enumerated. Is it possible that so many Turkish-Cypriots emigrated in the fifty-year period? Taken together, the considerations just mentioned suggest that it probably was. From a base of 45,000 in 1881, emigration of anything like 27,000 persons seems huge, but after subtracting the known 5,000 of the 1920s, the balance represents an average annual outflow of some 500 ? not enough, probably, to concern the community’s leaders, evoke official comment, or be documented in any way which survives today.
[9]
Population transfer between Greece and Turkey, 1923
[
edit
]
Population exchange between Greece and Turkey
brought 400,000. In 1923, more than half a million Muslims of various nationalities arrived from Greece as part of the
population transfer
between Greece and Turkey (the population exchange was not based on ethnicity, but by religious affiliation; as Turkey was seen as a Muslim country while Greece was viewed as a Christian country).
An article published in
The Times
on December 5, 1923, stated that:
"…This transfer of populations is made especially difficult by the fact that few if any of the Turks in Greece desire to leave and most of them will resort to every possible expedient to avoid being sent away. A thousand Turks who voluntarily emigrated from
Crete
to
Smyrna
have sent several deputations to the Greek government asking to be allowed to return. Groups of Turks from all parts of Greece have submitted petitions for exemption. A few weeks ago, a group of
Turks from Crete
came to
Athens
with a request that they be
baptized
into the
Greek church
and thus be entitled to consideration as Greeks. The government however declined to permit this evasion."
[10]
The only exclusions from the forced transfer were the Greeks living in
Constantinople
(
Istanbul
) and the
Turks of Western Thrace
.
[11]
The remaining Turks living in Greece have since continuously emigrated to
Turkey
, a process which has been facilitated by Article 19 of the
Greek Nationality Law
which the Greek state has used to deny re-entry of Turks who leave the country, even for temporary periods, and deprived them of their citizenship.
[12]
Since 1923, between 300,000 and 400,000
Turks of Western Thrace
left the region, most of them went to Turkey.
[13]
Expulsions from Balkans & Russia, 1925?1961
[
edit
]
After 1925, Turkey continued to accept Turkic-speaking Muslims as immigrants and did not discourage the emigration of members of non-Turkic minorities. More than 90% of all immigrants arrived from the Balkan countries. Turkey continued to receive large numbers of refugees from former Ottoman territories, until the end of Second World War.
Turkey received 350,000 Turks between 1923 and 1930.
[14]
From 1934?45, 229,870 refugees and immigrants came to Turkey.
[15]
An agreement made, on September 4, 1936, between Romania and Turkey allowed 70,000
Romanian Turks
to leave the
Dobruja
region for Turkey.
[16]
Between 1935?40, for example, approximately 124,000 Bulgarians and Romanians of Turkish origin emigrated to Turkey, and between 1954-56 about 35,000 Muslim Slavs emigrated from Yugoslavia. More than 800,000 people came to Turkey between 1923 and 1945.
[17]
German and Austrian refugees escaping from Nazism took refugee in Turkey in the 1930s. Around 800 refugees including university professors, scientists, artists and philosophers, sought asylum in Turkey between 1933 and 1945. An additional 160,000 people (mostly
Albanians
) immigrated to Turkey after the establishment of
Communist Yugoslavia
from 1946 to 1961. Since 1961, immigrants from that Yugoslavia amounted to 50,000 people.
[18]
By the 1960s, inhabitants living in the Turkish
exclave
of
Ada Kaleh
were forced to leave the island when it was destroyed in order to build the
Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station
, which caused the extinction of the local community through the migration of all individuals to different parts of Romania and Turkey.
[19]
By 1980, Turkey had admitted approximately 1,300,000 immigrants; 36% came from Bulgaria, 25% from Greece
[
citation needed
]
, 22.1% from Yugoslavia, and 8.9% from Romania. These Balkan immigrants, as well as smaller numbers of Turkic immigrants from Cyprus and the Soviet Union, were granted full citizenship upon their arrival in Turkey. The immigrants were settled primarily in the
Marmara
and
Aegean
regions (78%) and in
Central Anatolia
(11.7%).
[18]
Expulsions from Cyprus & Cyprus Emergency
[
edit
]
The
Cyprus Emergency
was a
conflict
fought in
British Cyprus
between 1955 and 1959. According to Ali Suat Bilge, taking into consideration the mass migrations of 1878, the First World War, the 1920s early Turkish Republican era, and the Second World War, overall, a total of approximately 100,000 Turkish Cypriots had left the island for Turkey between 1878?1945.
[20]
By August 31, 1955, a statement by Turkey's Minister of State and Acting Foreign Minister,
Fatin Ru?tu Zorlu
, at the London Conference on Cyprus, stated that:
Consequently, today [1955] as well, when we take into account the state of the population in Cyprus, it is not sufficient to say, for instance, that 100,000 Turks live there. One should rather say that 100,000 out of 24,000,000 Turks live there and that 300,000 Turkish Cypriots live in various parts of Turkey.
[21]
By 2001 the TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimated that 500,000 Turkish Cypriots were living in Turkey.
[22]
Gulf War
[
edit
]
Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran during the
Gulf War
.
[23]
Big Excursion, 1988?1994
[
edit
]
The "Big Excursion"
was, until the
Syrian refugee crisis of 2011
, the most recent immigration influx, and primarily concerned
Bulgarian Turks
and
Bosnian
Muslims.
[24]
[25]
In 1989, an estimated 320,000 Bulgarian Turks fled to Turkey to escape a campaign of
forced assimilation
. Following the collapse of Communism in Bulgaria, the number of Bulgarian Turks seeking refuge in Turkey declined to fewer than 1,000 per month. In fact, the number of Bulgarian Turks who voluntarily repatriated (125,000) actually exceeded new arrivals from the country. By March 1994, a total of 245,000 Bulgarian Turks had been granted Turkish citizenship. However, Turkey no longer regards Bulgarian Turks as refugees. Beginning in 1994, new entrants to Turkey have been detained and deported. As of December 31, 1994, an estimated 20,000 Bosniaks were living in Turkey, mostly in the Istanbul area. About 2,600 were living in camps, the rest were dispersed in private residences. More recent estimates put the number of Bosniaks in Turkey at 3 to 5 million.
[26]
Turkey's migration crisis
[
edit
]
Turkey's migrant crisis
or Turkey's refugee crisis is a period during the 2010s characterized by high numbers of people arriving in Turkey. As reported by UNHCR in 2018, Turkey is hosting 63.4% of all the refugees (from Syria, Africa, and Afghanistan) in the world. As of 2019,
Refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey
(3.6 million) are the highest "registered" refugees.
Turkey
has traditionally been a major transit port for illegal immigrants to enter the
European Union
, but as Turkey has grown in wealth, it now finds itself a major focal point in illegal immigration.
[27]
[28]
[29]
As of August 2023, the number of refugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey was estimated to be 3,307,882 people. The number of Syrians had decreased by 205,894 people since the beginning of the year.
[30]
As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian
refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
have sought refuge in Turkey.
[31]
In 2022, nearly 100 000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.
[32]
Citizenship
[
edit
]
Turkish nationality law is based primarily on the principle of
jus sanguinis
. Children who are born to a
Turkish mother
or a
Turkish
father (in or out of marriage) are
Turkish
citizens from birth. The intention to renounce Turkish citizenship (or acquire citizenship from another state) is submitted in Turkey by a petition to the highest administrative official in the concerned person's place of residence, and when overseas to the
Turkish consulate
. Documents processed by these authorities are forwarded to the
Ministry of Interior (Turkey)
for appropriate action.
[33]
Turkey Citizenship by Investment Program
[
edit
]
In 2016, Turkey implemented a Golden Visa program that allows foreign investors to obtain a
Turkish passport
typically within six months.
[34]
Citizenship can be acquired after a formal citizenship application along with an investment requirement, such as purchasing
real estate
worth at least $250,000, purchasing $500,000 worth of
government bonds
and holding them for at least three years or making a capital investment of at least $500,000, among other options.
[34]
The relevant law governing the program was amended on 13 May 2022 to raise the capital requirements for real estate investment to $400,000 USD from the previous $250,000.
[35]
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Protections
[
edit
]
Turkey is part of the executive committee of
UNHCR
and a member state of the IOM.
Conventions that are applicable in Turkey:
Conventions that are not applicable in Turkey:
Regulations
[
edit
]
see:
Law on Foreigners and International Protection and the Temporary Protection
Regulations on refugees, asylum seekers, transit migrants available from the website:
[36]
Bi-and multi-lateral dialog
[
edit
]
| This section needs to be
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.
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Turkey was chair of the
Global Forum on Migration and Development
. Turkey hosted the
World Humanitarian Summit
in 2016. Turkey participates in bilateral migration negotiations, discussions and consultations, in particular with EU member states. Examples are:
- Budapest Process
[37]
- Prague Process
[38]
- Almaty Process
[39]
- Bali Process.
[40]
Turkey and the EU have launched a dialogue on visas, mobility and migration. After the
2015 G20 Antalya summit
held in November 2015 there was a new push forward in Turkey's European Union accession negotiations, including a goal of lifting the visa requirement for Turkish citizens travelling in the
Schengen Area
of the
European Union
.
[41]
After the 2015 G20 Antalya summit, the EU welcomed the Turkey's commitment to accelerate the fulfilment of the Visa Roadmap benchmarks set forth by participating EU member states.
[42]
A joint action plan was drafted with the
European Commission
which developed a roadmap with certain benchmarks for the elimination of the visa requirement.
[43]
In May 2016, the
European Commission
said that Turkey had met most of the 72 criteria needed for a visa waiver, and it invited EU legislative institutions of the bloc to endorse the move for visa-free travel by Turkish citizens within the Schengen Area by June 30, 2016. The
European Parliament
, would have to approve the visa waiver for it to enter into practice and Turkey must fulfil the final five criteria.
[44]
Turkey has a number of formal bilateral agreements with sending/receiving countries. It currently has bilateral social security agreements with 28 countries bilateral labour agreements with 12 countries, including Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Sweden.
Visa System
[
edit
]
Turkey developed an E-ikamet (E-residence) system, as well as a system to monitor the visa process. The
electronic visa
application system is integrated with the Police Intranet System, PolNet. The Directorate-General of Migration Management of Turkey (DGMM) institutional database GocNet (Migration Network) is connected to the PolNet (Police Network) database.
Drugs-Crime-Sexual exploitation of immigrants
[
edit
]
An inter-agency national commission responsible for countering human trafficking. Turkey collects and publishes information annually on counter-trafficking activities. Drugs-Crime-Sexual exploitation category had 183 victims in 2016, Syrians (36), followed by Kyrgyz (33), Georgians (23), and Uzbeks (16); the other 73 victims were Indonesia, Moldova, Morocco, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan aggregated.
[45]
Immigration rate
[
edit
]
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Immigration to Turkey from the Balkans:
[46]
Country
|
1923?1949
|
1950?1959
|
1960?1969
|
1970?1979
|
1980?1989
|
1990?1999
|
2000?2007
|
TOTAL
|
Bulgaria
|
220,085
|
154,473
|
2,582
|
113,562
|
225,892
|
74,564
|
138
|
791,296
|
Greece
|
394,753
|
14,787
|
2,081
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
408,625
|
Yugoslavia
|
117,212
|
138,585
|
42,512
|
2,940
|
2,550
|
2,159
|
1,548
|
307,506
|
Romania
|
121,339
|
5
|
259
|
147
|
686
|
126
|
2
|
122,564
|
Others
|
10,109
|
4,222
|
1,047
|
139
|
4,457
|
773
|
49
|
20,796
|
TOTAL
|
825,022
|
312,072
|
48,481
|
16,788
|
233,589
|
77,622
|
1,731
|
1,650,787
|
Immigration categories
[
edit
]
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Foreign-born population
[
edit
]
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updated
.
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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)
|
Foreign-born population of Turkey:
[46]
[47]
Place of birth
|
1955
|
1970
|
1990
|
2000
|
2015
[48]
|
Bulgaria
|
295,917
|
255,147
|
462,767
|
480,817
|
378,658
|
Greece
|
257,035
|
201,123
|
101,752
|
59,217
|
26,928
|
Yugoslavia
|
133,762
|
254,790
|
183,499
|
|
|
Romania
|
68,112
|
60,398
|
|
20,736
|
9,512
|
Macedonia
|
|
|
|
31,515
|
43,400
|
Germany
|
|
|
176,820
|
273,535
|
263,318
|
France
|
|
|
10,280
|
15,976
|
28,507
|
Netherlands
|
|
|
9,916
|
|
32,345
|
United Kingdom
|
|
|
|
18,914
|
32,140
|
United States
|
5,997
|
17,179
|
12,868
|
|
24,026
|
Russia
|
29,151
|
17,825
|
11,430
|
19,856
|
34,486
|
Syria
|
7,156
|
|
|
|
76,413
|
Iraq
|
|
|
27,303
|
|
97,528
|
Albania
|
6,639
|
|
|
|
2,488
|
Iran
|
5,950
|
6,283
|
10,463
|
|
36,226
|
Algeria
|
|
|
|
|
35,789
|
Saudi Arabia
|
4,109
|
7,886
|
|
|
14,573
|
Cyprus
/
Northern Cyprus
|
|
6,378
|
|
|
20,402
|
Azerbaijan
|
|
|
|
16,787
|
52,836
|
Uzbekistan
|
|
|
|
|
36,083
|
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
|
|
|
|
|
38,692
|
Belgium
|
|
|
|
|
26,531
|
Georgia
|
|
|
|
|
25,019
|
Turkmenistan
|
|
|
|
|
24,937
|
Kazakhstan
|
|
|
|
|
21,546
|
Ukraine
|
|
|
|
|
20,547
|
Austria
|
|
|
|
|
18,609
|
Kyrgyzstan
|
|
|
|
|
17,235
|
Libya
|
|
|
|
|
16,442
|
Moldova
|
|
|
|
|
13,472
|
Switzerland
|
|
|
|
|
13,453
|
China
|
|
|
|
|
12,426
|
Serbia
and
Montenegro
|
|
|
|
|
9,201
|
TOTAL
|
846,042
|
889,170
|
1,133,152
|
1,260,530
|
1,592,437
|
Sources of immigration
[
edit
]
Armenians
[
edit
]
In 2010, there were between 22,000 and 25,000 Armenian citizens living illegally in
Istanbul
alone, according to Turkish officials.
[49]
Syrians
[
edit
]
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Refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey
are the
Syrian refugees
originated from
Syrian Civil War
, Turkey is hosting over 3.6 million (2019 number) "registered" refugees and delivered aid reaching $30 billion (total between 2011?2018) on refugee assistance. The large scale return to Syria uncertain (unending conflict), Turkey has focused on how to manage their presence, more registered refugees than any other country, in Turkish society by addressing their legal status, basic needs, employment, education, and impact on local communities.
Russians
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Roma people tell of ancestors' 1923 'population exchange' stories"
. 13 March 2019.
- ^
"The Roma tobacco workers who live in Ortakoy/Be?ikta? with leftist... | Download Scientific Diagram"
.
- ^
"Gocmen ? Muhacir ? Mubadil!"
. 29 July 2021.
- ^
Ca?atay 2006
, 82
- ^
Karpat 2004
, 612.
- ^
Nevzat 2005
, 276.
- ^
Nevzat 2005
, 280.
- ^
Nevzat 2005
, 281.
- ^
St. John-Jones 1983
, 56.
- ^
Clark 2007
, 158.
- ^
Corni & Stark 2008
, 8.
- ^
Poulton 1997
, 19.
- ^
Whitman 1990
, 2.
- ^
Heper & Criss 2009
, 91
- ^
Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk, Soner Cagaptay, page 1824, 2013
- ^
Corni & Stark 2008
, 55.
- ^
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- ^
a
b
Heper & Criss 2009
, 92.
- ^
Bercovici 2012
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- ^
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Le Conflit de Chypre et les Chypriotes Turcs
, Ajans Turk, p. 5
- ^
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.
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.
- ^
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:
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.
ISSN
0143-6597
.
JSTOR
3992197
.
- ^
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.
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.
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. Retrieved
2022-07-26
.
- ^
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.
kaee.uni-goettingen.de
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.
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.
multeciler.org.tr
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.
al-monitor.com
.
- ^
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(PDF)
.
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.
- ^
a
b
"Turkey Citizenship by Investment - Turkey Golden Visa"
.
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
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Bibliography
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Further reading
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edit
]