Medical condition
Human granulocytic anaplasmosis
|
---|
Other names
| Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE)
[1]
[2]
|
---|
|
Anaplasma phagocytophilum
cultured in a human
promyelocytic
cell line, arrows point to cells containing prominent bacterial morulae
|
Specialty
| Infectious diseases
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Human granulocytic anaplasmosis
(
HGA
) is a
tick-borne
,
infectious disease
caused by
Anaplasma phagocytophilum
, an obligate intracellular
bacterium
that is typically transmitted to humans by
ticks
of the
Ixodes ricinus
species complex, including
Ixodes scapularis
and
Ixodes pacificus
in North America. These ticks also transmit
Lyme disease
and other tick-borne diseases.
[3]
The bacteria infect white blood cells called
neutrophils
, causing changes in gene expression that prolong the life of these otherwise short-lived cells.
[4]
Signs and symptoms
[
edit
]
Signs and symptoms may include:
[
citation needed
]
- fever
- severe
headache
- muscle aches (
myalgia
)
- chills and shaking, similar to the symptoms of
influenza
- nausea
- vomiting
- loss of appetite
- unintentional weight loss
- abdominal pain
- cough
- diarrhea,
- aching joints
- sensitivity to light
- weakness
- fatigue
- change in mental status (extreme confusion, memory loss, inability to comprehend environment- interaction, reading, etc.)
- temporary loss of basic motor skills
Symptoms may be minor, as evidenced by surveillance studies in high-risk areas.
Gastrointestinal tract
symptoms occur in less than half of patients and a skin rash is seen in less than 10% of patients.
[5]
It is also characterized by a
low number of platelets
, a low number of
white blood cells
, and elevated
serum
transaminase
levels in the majority of infected patients.
[5]
Even though people of any age can get HGA, it is usually more severe in the aging or immune-compromised. Some severe complications may include
respiratory failure
,
kidney failure
, and secondary infections.
[
citation needed
]
Cause
[
edit
]
A. phagocytophilum
is transmitted to humans by
Ixodes
ticks. These ticks are found in the US, Europe, and Asia. In the US,
I. scapularis
is the tick vector in the East and Midwest states, and
I. pacificus
in the Pacific Northwest.
[6]
In Europe, the
I. ricinus
is the main tick vector, and
I. persulcatus
is the currently known tick vector in Asia.
[7]
The major mammalian reservoir for
A. phagocytophilum
in the eastern United States is the white-footed mouse,
Peromyscus leucopus
. Although white-tailed deer and other small mammals harbor
A. phagocytophilum
, evidence suggests that they are not a reservoir for the strains that cause HGA.
[8]
[9]
A tick that has a blood meal from an infected reservoir becomes infected themselves. If an infected tick then latches onto a human the disease is then transmitted to the human host and
A.
phagocytophilum
symptoms can arise.
[10]
Anaplasma phagocytophilum
shares its tick vector with other human pathogens, and about 10% of patients with HGA show serologic evidence of coinfection with
Lyme disease
,
babesiosis
, or
tick-borne meningoencephalitis
.
[11]
While it is rare, it is possible for HGA to be transmitted human-to-human via a
blood transfusion
, in which case it is called Transfusion-Transmitted Anaplasmosis (TTA).
[12]
Major surface proteins
[
edit
]
Many major surface proteins (MSPs) are found in
Anaplasma
and those which interact with
Anaplasma
can mainly be found in
A
.
marginale
and
A
.
phagocytophilum.
[13]
There are many different phenotypic traits that are associated with MSPs, because each MSP can only infect certain animals in certain conditions.
[13]
A. phagocytophilum
infects the most vast array of living things, including humans, and all around the world.
[13]
A. marginale
evolved to be more specific in infecting animals, such as deer and cattle in the subtropics and tropics.
[13]
The main difference between these two MSPs is that the host cell for
A. phagocytophilum
is the granulocyte, while the host cell for
A. marginale
is erythrocytes.
[13]
It is likely that these MSPs coevolved, because they had previously interacted via tick-pathogen interaction.
[13]
Anaplasma
MSPs can not only cooperate with vertebrates, but also invertebrates, which make these phenotypes evolve faster than others, because they have a lot of selective forces acting on them.
[13]
Diagnosis
[
edit
]
Clinically, HGA is essentially indistinguishable from
human monocytic ehrlichiosis
, the infection caused by
Ehrlichia chaffeensis
, and other tick-borne illnesses such as Lyme disease may be suspected.
[14]
As Ehrlichia serologies can be negative in the acute period,
PCR
is very useful for diagnosis.
[15]
Prevention
[
edit
]
Currently, there is no vaccine against human granulocytic anaplasmosis, so antibiotics are the only form of treatment.
[7]
The best way to prevent HGA is to prevent getting tick bites.
[16]
Treatment
[
edit
]
Doxycycline
is the treatment of choice. If anaplasmosis is suspected, treatment should not be delayed while waiting for a definitive laboratory confirmation, as prompt doxycycline therapy has been shown to improve outcomes.
[14]
Presentation during early pregnancy can complicate treatment. Doxycycline compromises dental enamel during development.
[17]
Although
rifampin
is indicated for post-delivery pediatric and some doxycycline-allergic patients, it is
teratogenic
. Rifampin is contraindicated during conception and pregnancy.
[18]
If the disease is not treated quickly, sometimes before the diagnosis, the person has a high chance of mortality.
[7]
Most people make a complete recovery, though some people are intensively cared for after treatment.
[7]
A reason for a person needing intensive care is if the person goes too long without seeing a doctor or being diagnosed.
[7]
The majority of people, though, make a complete recovery with no residual damage.
[7]
Epidemiology
[
edit
]
From the first reported case in 1994 until 2010, HGA's rates of incidence have exponentially increased.
[19]
This is likely because HGA is found where there are ticks that carry and transmit Lyme disease, also known as
Borrelia burgdorferi
, and
babesiosis
, which is found in the northeastern and midwestern United States, which has seemingly increased in the past couple of decades.
[19]
Before 2000, there were less than 300 cases reported per year. In 2000, there were only 350 reported cases.
[19]
From 2009-2010, HGA experienced a 52% increase in the number of cases reported.
[19]
History
[
edit
]
The first outbreak of Human Granulocytic Anaplasmosis (HGA) in the United States began with a patient in early 1990 in Wisconsin. He was kept in the hospital in Minnesota for testing, but died without a diagnosis.
[7]
Over the next couple of years, many people within the same area of Wisconsin and Minnesota had come down with the same symptoms.
[7]
It was discovered in 1994 that it was Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis (HGE), later to be known as HGA.
[10]
Terminology
[
edit
]
Although the infectious agent is known to be from the
Anaplasma
genus, the term "human granulocytic ehrlichiosis" (HGE) is often used, reflecting the prior classification of the organism.
E. phagocytophilum
and
E. equi
were reclassified as
Anaplasma phagocytophilum
.
[
citation needed
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
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- ^
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.
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.
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- ^
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.
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"Human Granulocytic Anaplasmosis and
Anaplasma
phagocytophilum"
.
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(12): 1828?1834.
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:
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.
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3367650
.
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.
- ^
Dumler JS, Choi KS, Garcia-Garcia JC, et al. (December 2005).
"Human granulocytic anaplasmosis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum"
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- ^
Goel, Ruchika; Westblade, Lars F.; Kessler, Debra A.; Sfeir, Maroun; Slavinski, Sally; Backenson, Bryon; et al. (August 2018).
"Death from transfusion-transmitted anaplasmosis"
.
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. Ticks and Tick-borne Pathogens.
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"The importance of early treatment with doxycycline in human ehrlichiosis"
.
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.
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.
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- ^
Muffly T, McCormick TC, Cook C, Wall J (2008).
"Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis complicating early pregnancy"
.
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.
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.
- ^
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"Successful treatment of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis in children using rifampin"
.
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.
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.
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.
External links
[
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Classification
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External resources
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Diseases
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Infestations
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Species and bites
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