Entire structure of a human being
"Anatomy of the human body" redirects here. For the textbook, see
Gray's Anatomy
.
The
human body
is the entire structure of a
human being
. It is composed of many different types of
cells
that together create
tissues
and subsequently
organs
and then
organ systems
. They ensure
homeostasis
and the
viability
of the human body.
It consists of a
head
,
hair
,
neck
,
torso
(which includes the
thorax
and
abdomen
),
arms
,
hands
,
legs
, and
feet
.
The study of the human body includes
anatomy
,
physiology
,
histology
and
embryology
. The body
varies anatomically
in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain
homeostasis
, with safe levels of substances such as sugar and
oxygen
in the blood.
The body is studied by
health professionals
, physiologists, anatomists, and artists to assist them in their work
12+365+12+7+1+7+55×?+12π85524(25256311×4456) = 788546225346885421664.1223164958722315486995824366458978561
Composition
[
edit
]
Elements of the human body by mass.
Trace elements
are less than 1% combined (and each less than 0.1%).
|
Element
|
Symbol
|
Percent mass
|
Percent atoms
|
Oxygen
|
O
|
65.0
|
24.0
|
Carbon
|
C
|
18.5
|
12.0
|
Hydrogen
|
H
|
9.5
|
62.0
|
Nitrogen
|
N
|
3.2
|
1.1
|
Calcium
|
Ca
|
1.5
|
0.22
|
Phosphorus
|
P
|
1.0
|
0.22
|
Potassium
|
K
|
0.4
|
0.03
|
Sulfur
|
S
|
0.3
|
0.038
|
Sodium
|
Na
|
0.2
|
0.037
|
Chlorine
|
Cl
|
0.2
|
0.024
|
Magnesium
|
Mg
|
0.1
|
0.015
|
Trace elements
|
|
< 0.1
|
< 0.3
|
The
human body is composed of
elements
including
hydrogen
,
oxygen
,
carbon
,
calcium
and
phosphorus
. These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body.
The adult male body is about 60%
water
for a total water content of some 42 litres (9.2 imp gal; 11 US gal). This is made up of about 19 litres (4.2 imp gal; 5.0 US gal) of
extracellular fluid
including about 3.2 litres (0.70 imp gal; 0.85 US gal) of blood plasma and about 8.4 litres (1.8 imp gal; 2.2 US gal) of
interstitial fluid
, and about 23 litres (5.1 imp gal; 6.1 US gal) of fluid inside cells.
[1]
The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside cells are
sodium
and
chloride
, whereas within cells it is
potassium
and other
phosphates
.
Cells
[
edit
]
The body contains trillions of
cells
, the fundamental unit of life. At maturity, there are roughly 30 trillion cells, and 38 trillion bacteria in the body,
[3]
[4]
an estimate arrived at by totaling the cell numbers of all the
organs
of the body and
cell types
. The skin of the body is also host to billions of commensal organisms as well as immune cells.
[5]
Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an
extracellular matrix
that consists of
proteins
such as
collagen
, surrounded by extracellular fluids.
Genome
[
edit
]
Cells in the body function because of
DNA
. DNA sits within the
nucleus of a cell
. Here, parts of DNA are
copied
and sent to the body of the cell via
RNA
.
The RNA is then used to
create
proteins
, which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced.
[7]
However, not all cells have DNA; some cells such as mature
red blood cells
lose their nucleus as they mature.
Tissues
[
edit
]
The body consists of many different types of
tissue
, defined as cells that act with a specialised function.
[8]
The study of tissues is called
histology
and is often done with a
microscope
. The body consists of four main types of tissues. These are lining cells (
epithelia
),
connective tissue
,
nerve tissue
and
muscle tissue
.
Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (
epithelia
) or internal cavities (
endothelium
) come in numerous shapes and forms ? from
single layers of flat cells
, to cells with small beating hair-like
cilia
in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the
stomach
. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and cannot pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.
Organs
[
edit
]
Organs
, structured collections of
cells
with a specific function,
[10]
mostly sit within the body, with the exception of
skin
. Examples include the
heart
,
lungs
and
liver
. Many organs reside within
cavities
within the body. These cavities include the
abdomen
(which contains the stomach, for example) and
pleura
, which contains the lungs.
Heart
[
edit
]
The heart is an organ located in the
thoracic cavity
between the
lungs
and slightly to the left. It is surrounded by the
pericardium
, which holds it in place in the
mediastinum
and serves to protect it from blunt trauma,
infection
and help lubricate the movement of the heart via
pericardial fluid
.
[11]
The heart works by
pumping blood around the body
allowing
oxygen
,
nutrients
,
waste
,
hormones
and
white blood cells
to be transported.
The heart is composed of
two atria
and
two ventricles
. The primary purpose of the atria is to allow uninterrupted venous blood flow to the heart during
ventricular systole
. This allows enough blood to get into the ventricles during
atrial systole
. Consequently, the atria allows a
cardiac output
roughly 75% greater than would be possible without them.
[12]
The purpose of the ventricles is to
pump blood to the lungs
through the right ventricle and to
the rest of the body
through the left ventricle.
[13]
The heart has an
electrical conduction system
to control the contraction and relaxation of the muscles. It starts in the
sinoatrial node
traveling through the atria causing them to
pump blood into the ventricles
. It then travels to the
atrioventricular node
, which makes the signal slow down slightly allowing the ventricles to fill with blood before pumping it out and starting the cycle over again.
[14]
Coronary artery disease
is the
leading cause of death worldwide
, making up 16% of all deaths.
[15]
It is caused by the buildup of
plaque
in the
coronary arteries
supplying the heart, eventually the arteries may become so narrow that
not enough blood
is able to reach the
myocardium
,
[16]
a condition known as
myocardial infarction or heart attack
, this can cause
heart failure
or
cardiac arrest
and eventually death.
[17]
Risk factors for coronary artery disease include
obesity
,
smoking
,
high cholesterol
,
high blood pressure
,
lack of exercise
and
diabetes
.
[18]
Cancer can affect the heart
, though it is exceedingly rare and has usually
metastasized
from another part of the body such as the
lungs
or
breasts
. This is because the
heart cells
quickly stop dividing and all growth occurs through
size increase
rather than
cell division
.
[19]
Gallbladder
[
edit
]
The gallbladder is a hollow pear-shaped organ located
posterior
to the
inferior
middle part of the
right lobe of the liver
. It is variable in shape and size. It stores
bile
before it is released into the small intestine via the
common bile duct
to help with
digestion of fats
. It receives bile from the
liver
via the
cystic duct
, which connects to the
common hepatic duct
to form the
common bile duct
.
[20]
The gallbladder gets its blood supply from the
cystic artery
, which in most people, emerges from the
right hepatic artery
.
[20]
Gallstones
is a common disease in which one or more stones form in the gallbladder or
biliary tract
. Most people are asymptomatic but if a stone blocks the biliary tract, it causes a
gallbladder attack
, symptoms may include sudden pain in the upper right abdomen and or center of the abdomen. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. Typical treatment is removal of the gallbladder through a procedure called a
cholecystectomy
.
[21]
[22]
Having gallstones is a risk factor for
gallbladder cancer
, which although quite uncommon, is rapidly fatal if not diagnosed early.
[23]
Systems
[
edit
]
The
circulatory system
consists of the
heart
and
blood vessels
(
arteries
,
veins
and
capillaries
). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer
oxygen
, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells and signaling molecules (i.e.
hormones
) from one part of the body to another. Paths of blood circulation within the human body can be divided into two circuits: the
pulmonary circuit
, which pumps blood to the lungs to receive
oxygen
and leave
carbon dioxide
, and the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the heart off to the rest of the body. The blood consists of fluid that carries
cells
in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the
spleen
and
bone marrow
.
[24]
[25]
[26]
The
digestive system
consists of the mouth including the
tongue
and
teeth
,
esophagus
,
stomach
, (
gastrointestinal tract
,
small
and
large intestines
, and
rectum
), as well as the
liver
,
pancreas
,
gallbladder
, and
salivary glands
. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic
molecules
for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules take the form of
proteins
(which are broken down into
amino acids
),
fats
,
vitamins
and
minerals
(the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). After being
swallowed
, food moves through the
gastrointestinal tract
by means of
peristalsis
: the systematic expansion and contraction of muscles to push food from one area to the next.
[27]
[28]
Digestion begins in the
mouth
, which
chews
food into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is
swallowed
, and moves through the
esophagus
to the
stomach
. In the stomach, food is mixed with
gastric acids
to allow the extraction of
nutrients
. What is left is called
chyme
; this then moves into the
small intestine
, which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the
large intestine
, where it is dried to form
feces
; these are then stored in the
rectum
until they are expelled through the
anus
.
[28]
The
endocrine system
consists of the principal
endocrine glands
: the
pituitary
,
thyroid
,
adrenals
,
pancreas
,
parathyroids
, and
gonads
, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine
hormones
as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, resulting in variety of changes of function.
[29]
The
immune system
consists of the
white blood cells
, the
thymus
,
lymph nodes
and
lymph
channels, which are also part of the
lymphatic system
. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as
antibodies
,
cytokines
, and
toll-like receptors
, among many others.
[30]
The
integumentary system
consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and
nails
as well as other functionally important structures such as the
sweat glands
and
sebaceous glands
. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.
[31]
[32]
The
lymphatic system
extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The lymphatic system is similar to the circulatory system in terms of both its structure and its most basic function, to carry a body fluid.
[33]
The
musculoskeletal system
consists of the
human skeleton
(which includes
bones
,
ligaments
,
tendons
,
joints
and
cartilage
) and attached
muscles
. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain
bone marrow
, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for
calcium
and
phosphate
. This system can be split up into the
muscular system
and the
skeletal system
.
[34]
The
nervous system
consists of the body's
neurons
and
glial
cells, which together form the
nerves
,
ganglia
and
gray matter
, which in turn form the
brain
and related structures. The brain is the organ of
thought
, emotion,
memory
, and
sensory processing
; it serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The
special senses
consist of
vision
,
hearing
,
taste
, and
smell
. The
eyes
,
ears
,
tongue
, and
nose
gather information about the body's environment.
[35]
From a structural perspective, the
nervous system
is typically subdivided into two component parts: the
central nervous system
(CNS), composed of the brain and the
spinal cord
; and the
peripheral nervous system
(PNS), composed of the nerves and
ganglia
outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing
motion
, processing
sensory information
, thought, memory,
cognition
and other such functions.
[36]
It remains a matter of some debate whether the
CNS
directly gives rise to
consciousness
.
[
citation needed
]
The
peripheral nervous system
(PNS) is mostly responsible for gathering information with
sensory neurons
and directing body movements with
motor neurons
.
[36]
From a functional perspective, the nervous system is again typically divided into two component parts: the
somatic nervous system
(SNS) and the
autonomic nervous system
(ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions like
speaking
and
sensory processes
. The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such as
digestion
and regulating
blood pressure
.
[37]
The nervous system is subject to many different diseases. In
epilepsy
, abnormal electrical activity in the brain can cause
seizures
. In
multiple sclerosis
, the
immune system
attacks the
nerve linings
, damaging the nerves' ability to transmit signals.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS), also known as
Lou Gehrig
's disease, is a
motor neuron
disease which gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the nervous system.
[36]
The purpose of the
reproductive system
is to reproduce and nurture the growth of offspring. The functions include the production of germ cells and hormones.
[38]
The
sex organs
of the
male reproductive system
and the
female reproductive system
develops and mature at
puberty
. These systems include the internal and external
genitalia
.
Female puberty generally occurs between the ages of 9 and 13 and is characterized by
ovulation
and
menstruation
; the growth of secondary sex characteristics, such as growth of
pubic
and
underarm hair
,
breast
,
uterine
and
vaginal
growth, widening hips and increased height and weight, also occur during puberty.
[39]
Male puberty sees the further development of the
penis
and
testicles
.
[40]
The female inner sex organs are the two ovaries, their
fallopian tubes
, the
uterus
, and the
cervix
. At birth there are about 70,000
immature egg cells
that degenerate until at puberty there are around 40,000. No more egg cells are produced. Hormones stimulate the beginning of menstruation, and the ongoing
menstrual cycles
.
[39]
[41]
The female external sex organs are the
vulva
(
labia
,
clitoris
, and
vaginal opening
).
[42]
[39]
The male external genitalia include the penis and
scrotum
that contains the
testicles
. The testicle is the
gonad
, the sex gland that produces the
sperm cells
. Unlike the egg cells in the female, sperm cells are produced throughout life. Other internal sex organs are the
epididymides
,
vasa deferentia
, and some
accessory glands
.
Diseases that affect the reproductive system include
polycystic ovary syndrome
,
[43]
a number of
disorders of the testicles
including
testicular torsion
,
[44]
[45]
and a number of
sexually transmitted infections
including
syphilis
,
HIV
,
chlamydia
,
HPV
and
genital warts
.
[46]
[47]
Cancer
can affect most parts of the reproductive system including
the penis
,
testicles
,
prostate
,
ovaries
,
cervix
,
vagina
,
fallopian
,
uterus
and
vulva
.
[48]
The
respiratory system
consists of the nose,
nasopharynx
,
trachea
, and
lungs
. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes
carbon dioxide
and water back into the air. First,
air
is pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the
diaphragm
pushing down, which creates a
vacuum
. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as
alveoli
(sing.: alveolus) before being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus is surrounded by
capillaries
carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the
bloodstream
.
[49]
[50]
For the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as possible to the movement of air within the lungs.
Inflammation
of the lungs and excess
mucus
are common sources of breathing difficulties.
[50]
In
asthma
, the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing
wheezing
and/or
shortness of breath
.
Pneumonia
occurs through
infection
of the alveoli, and may be caused by
tuberculosis
.
Emphysema
, commonly a result of
smoking
, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli.
[51]
The
urinary system
consists of the two
kidneys
, two
ureters
,
bladder
, and
urethra
. It removes waste materials from the blood through urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess
ions
and water out of the body.
First, the
kidneys
filter the blood through their respective
nephrons
, removing
waste products
like
urea
,
creatinine
and maintaining the
proper balance
of
electrolytes
and turning the waste products into
urine
by combining them with water from the blood.
[52]
The kidneys filter about 150 quarts (170 liters) of blood daily, but most of it is returned to the blood stream with only 1-2 quarts (1-2 liters) ending up as urine.
[53]
The urine is brought by the
ureters
from the kidneys down to the
bladder
.
The
smooth muscle
lining the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax through a process called
peristalsis
to force urine away from the kidneys and down into the bladder. Small amounts of urine are released into the bladder every 10?15 seconds.
The bladder is a hollow balloon shaped organ located in the
pelvis
. It stores urine until the brain signals it to relax the
urinary sphincter
and release the urine into the urethra starting
urination
.
[54]
A normal bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (half a liter) for 3?5 hours comfortably.
Numerous
diseases affect the urinary system
including
kidney stones
, which are formed when materials in the urine concentrate enough to form a solid mass,
urinary tract infections
, which are infections of the urinary tract and can cause pain when urinating, frequent urination and even death if left untreated.
Renal failure
occurs when the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste from the blood and can lead to death if not treated with
dialysis
or
kidney transplantation
.
[55]
Cancer
can affect the
bladder
,
kidneys
,
urethra
and
ureters
, with the latter two being far more rare.
[56]
Anatomy
[
edit
]
Human
anatomy
is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four
limbs
(two arms and two legs), a head and a
neck
, which connect to the
torso
. The body's shape is determined by a strong
skeleton
made of
bone
and
cartilage
, surrounded by fat (
adipose tissue
), muscle,
connective tissue
, organs, and other structures. The
spine
at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible
vertebral column
, which surrounds the
spinal cord
, which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the
brain
to the rest of the body.
Nerves
connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles, and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of
anatomical variations
such as
sesamoid bones
and
accessory muscles
.
Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body, which moves because of the beating of the
heart
.
Venules
and
veins
collect blood low in oxygen from tissues throughout the body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's two largest veins, the
superior
and
inferior vena cava
, which drain blood into the right side of the heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the
lungs
where it receives oxygen and drains back into the left side of the heart. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest
artery
, the
aorta
, and then progressively smaller arteries and
arterioles
until it reaches tissue. Here, blood passes from small arteries into
capillaries
, then small veins and the process begins again. Blood carries
oxygen
, waste products, and
hormones
from one place in the body to another. Blood is filtered at the
kidneys
and
liver
.
The body consists of a number of
body cavities
, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and
central nervous system
reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by the
blood brain barrier
. The lungs sit in the
pleural cavity
. The
intestines
,
liver
, and
spleen
sit in the
abdominal cavity
.
Height, weight,
shape
and other
body proportions
vary individually and with age and sex. Body shape is influenced by the distribution of bones,
muscle
and
fat tissue
.
[57]
Physiology
[
edit
]
Human
physiology
is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical,
bioelectrical
, and
biochemical
functions of humans in good health, from
organs
to the
cells
of which they are composed. The human body consists of many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain
homeostasis
, keeping the body in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.
[58]
Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the
neuroendocrine system
. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via
nerve impulses
and
neurotransmitters
. At the same time, the
endocrine system
releases hormones, such as to help regulate
blood pressure
and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (
pH
).
[58]
Development
[
edit
]
Development of the human body is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins with fertilisation, where an egg released from the
ovary
of a female is penetrated by
sperm
. The egg then lodges in the
uterus
, where an
embryo
and later
fetus
develop until
birth
. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both physical and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. Development and growth continue throughout life, through
childhood
,
adolescence
, and through
adulthood
to
old age
, and are referred to as the process of
aging
.
Society and culture
[
edit
]
Professional study
[
edit
]
Health professionals
learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for example by
dissection
of cadavers. Human anatomy,
physiology
, and
biochemistry
are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school.
[59]
[60]
[61]
Depiction
[
edit
]
In Western societies, the contexts for depictions of the human body include
information
,
art
and
pornography
. Information includes both science and education, such as anatomical drawings. Any ambiguous image not easily fitting into one of these categories may be misinterpreted, leading to disputes.
[62]
The most contentious disputes are between fine art and erotic images, which define the legal distinction of which images are permitted or prohibited.
History of anatomy
[
edit
]
In
Ancient Greece
, the
Hippocratic Corpus
described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles.
[63]
The 2nd century physician
Galen of Pergamum
compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages.
[64]
In the
Renaissance
,
Andreas Vesalius
(1514?1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book
De humani corporis fabrica
.
[65]
[66]
Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the
microscope
and the study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs.
[67]
Modern anatomy uses techniques such as
magnetic resonance imaging
,
computed tomography
,
fluoroscopy
and
ultrasound imaging
to study the body in unprecedented detail.
[68]
History of physiology
[
edit
]
The study of human physiology began with
Hippocrates
in Ancient Greece, around 420 BCE, and with
Aristotle
(384?322 BCE) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between structure and function.
Galen
(
c.
126
? c.
199
) was the first to use experiments to probe the body's functions.
[69]
The term physiology was introduced by the French physician
Jean Fernel
(1497?1558). In the 17th century,
William Harvey
(1578?1657) described the
circulatory system
, pioneering the combination of close observation with careful experiment.
[70]
In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate with the
cell theory
of
Matthias Schleiden
and
Theodor Schwann
in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells.
Claude Bernard
(1813?1878) created the concept of the
milieu interieur
(internal environment), which
Walter Cannon
(1871?1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in
homeostasis
. In the 20th century, the physiologists
Knut Schmidt-Nielsen
and
George Bartholomew
extended their studies to
comparative physiology
and
ecophysiology
.
[71]
Most recently,
evolutionary physiology
has become a distinct subdiscipline.
[72]
See also
[
edit
]
Human body lists
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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.
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.
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.
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.
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30288149
.
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)
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"Testicular torsion"
.
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.
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17137004
.
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"Sexually Transmitted Diseases ? Information from CDC"
.
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.
- ^
"CDC ? STDs ? HPV"
.
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.
- ^
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.
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