The
history of Slovenia
chronicles the period of the
Slovenian territory
from the 5th century BC to the present. In the
Early Bronze Age
, Proto-
Illyrian
tribes settled an area stretching from present-day
Albania
to the city of
Trieste
. The Slovenian territory was part of the
Roman Empire
, and it was devastated by the
Migration Period
's incursions during
late Antiquity
and the
Early Middle Ages
. The main route from the
Pannonian plain
to
Italy
ran through present-day Slovenia.
Alpine Slavs
, ancestors of modern-day
Slovenians
, settled the area in the late 6th Century AD. The
Holy Roman Empire
controlled the land for nearly 1,000 years, and between the mid-14th century and 1918 most of Slovenia was under
Habsburg
rule. In 1918, most Slovene territory became part of the
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
, and in 1929 the
Drava Banovina
was created within the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
with its capital in
Ljubljana
, corresponding to Slovenian-majority territories within the state. The
Socialist Republic of Slovenia
was created in 1945 as part of
federal Yugoslavia
. Slovenia gained its independence from
Yugoslavia
in June 1991, and today it is a member of the
European Union
and
NATO
.
Prehistory to Slavic settlement
[
edit
]
Prehistory
[
edit
]
During the
last glacial period
, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by
Neanderthals
; the best-known Neanderthal archaeological site in Slovenia is a cave close to the village of
?ebrelje
near
Cerkno
, where the
Divje Babe Flute
, the oldest known musical instrument in the world, was found in 1995. The world's oldest securely dated wooden
wheel and axle
was found near the
Ljubljana Marsh
in 2002.
[1]
In the transition period between the
Bronze Age
to the
Iron Age
, the
Urnfield culture
flourished. Numerous archeological remains dating from the
Hallstatt period
have been found in Slovenia, with important settlements in
Most na So?i
,
Va?e
, and
?entvid pri Sti?ni
.
Novo Mesto
in
Lower Carniola
, one of the most important archaeological sites of the Hallstatt culture, has been nicknamed the "City of Situlas" after numerous
situlas
found in the area.
[2]
Ancient Celts and Romans
[
edit
]
In the
Iron Age
, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by
Illyrian
and
Celtic
tribes until the 1st century BC, when the
Romans
conquered the region establishing the provinces of
Pannonia
and
Noricum
. What is now western Slovenia was included directly under
Roman Italia
as part of the X region
Venetia et Histria
. Important Roman towns located in present-day Slovenia included
Emona
,
Celeia
and
Poetovio
. Other important settlements were
Nauportus
,
Neviodunum
,
Haliaetum
,
Atrans
, and
Stridon
.
During the
Migration Period
, the region suffered invasions of many barbarian armies, due to its strategic position as the main passage from the
Pannonian Plain
to the
Italian Peninsula
. Rome finally abandoned the region at the end of the 4th century. Most cities were destroyed, while the remaining local population moved to the highland areas, establishing fortified towns. In the 5th century, the region was part of the
Ostrogothic Kingdom
, and was later contested between the
Ostrogoths
, the
Byzantine Empire
and the
Lombards
.
Slavic settlement
[
edit
]
The Slavic ancestors of present-day
Slovenes
settled in the
East Alpine
area at the end of the 6th century. Coming from two directions, North (via today's East Austria and Czech Republic), settling in the area of today's Carinthia and west Styria, and South (via today's Slavonia), settling in the area of today's central Slovenia.
King Samo
[
edit
]
This Slavic tribe, also known as the
Alpine Slavs
, was submitted to
Avar
rule before joining the Slavic King
Samo
's tribal union in 623 AD. After Samo's death, the Slavs of
Carniola
(in present-day Slovenia) again fell to Avar rule, while the Slavs north of the
Karavanke
range (in present-day Austrian regions of
Carinthia
,
Styria
and
East Tyrol
) established the independent principality of
Carantania
.
Middle Ages
[
edit
]
Carantania to Carinthia
[
edit
]
In 745, Carantania and the rest of Slavic-populated territories of present-day Slovenia, being pressured by newly consolidated Avar power, submitted to Bavarian overrule and were, together with the Duchy of Bavaria, incorporated into the
Carolingian Empire
, while
Carantanians
and other Slavs living in present Slovenia
converted to Christianity
. The eastern part of Carantania was ruled again by Avars between 745 and 795.
Carantania retained its internal independence until 818 when the local princes, following the anti-
Frankish
rebellion of
Ljudevit Posavski
, were deposed and gradually replaced by a Germanic (primarily
Bavarian
) ascendancy. Under Emperor
Arnulf of Carinthia
, Carantania, now ruled by a mixed Bavarian-Slav nobility, briefly emerged as a regional power, but was destroyed by the
Hungarian
invasions in the late 9th century.
Carantania-Carinthia was established again as an autonomous administrative unit in 976, when Emperor Otto I, "the Great", after deposing the Duke of Bavaria, Henry II, "the Quarreller", split the lands held by him and made
Carinthia
the sixth duchy of the Holy Roman Empire, but old Carantania never developed into a unified realm.
In the late 10th and beginning of the 11th century, primarily because of the Hungarian threat, the south-eastern border region of the German Empire was organized into so called
"marks"
, that became the core of the development of the historical Slovenian lands, the Carniola, the Styria and the western Gori?ka/Gorizia. The consolidation and formation of the historical Slovenian lands took place in a long period between 11th and 14th century being led by a number of important feudal families such as the
Dukes of Spanheim
, the
Counts of Gorizia
, the
Counts of Celje
and finally the
House of Habsburg
.
[4]
Slovenes as a distinct ethnic group
[
edit
]
The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century.
[5]
During the 14th century, most of the Slovene Lands passed under the
Habsburg
rule. In the 15th century, the Habsburg domination was challenged by the
Counts of Celje
, but by the end of the century the great majority of Slovene-inhabited territories were incorporated into the
Habsburg monarchy
. Most Slovenes lived in the administrative region known as
Inner Austria
, forming the majority of the population of the
Duchy of Carniola
and the
County of Gorizia and Gradisca
, as well as of
Lower Styria
and southern
Carinthia
.
[6]
[7]
[8]
Slovenes also inhabited most of the territory of the
Imperial Free City
of
Trieste
, although representing the minority of its population.
[9]
Early modern period
[
edit
]
In the 16th century, the
Protestant Reformation
spread throughout the Slovene Lands. During this period, the first books in Slovene were written by the
Protestant
preacher
Primo? Trubar
and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, including an integral translation of the Bible by
Jurij Dalmatin
. During the
Counter-Reformation
in the late 16th and 17th centuries, led by the bishop of Ljubljana
Thomas Chron
and Seckau
Martin Brenner
, almost all Protestants were expelled from the Slovene Lands (with the exception of
Prekmurje
). Nevertheless, they left a strong legacy in the tradition of Slovene culture, which was partially incorporated in the Catholic
Counter-Reformation
in the 17th century. The
old Slovene orthography
, also known as
Bohori?
's alphabet, which was developed by the Protestants in the 16th century and remained in use until the mid-19th century, testified to the unbroken tradition of Slovene culture as established in the years of the Protestant Reformation.
Between the 15th and the 17th centuries, the Slovene Lands suffered many calamities. Many areas, especially in southern Slovenia, were devastated by the
Ottoman?Habsburg wars
. Many flourishing towns, like
Vipavski Kri?
and
Kostanjevica na Krki
, were completely destroyed by incursions of the
Ottoman Army
, and never recovered. The nobility of the Slovene-inhabited provinces had an important role in the fight against the
Ottoman Empire
. The
Carniolan
noblemen's army thus defeated the Ottomans in the
Battle of Sisak
of 1593, marking the end of the immediate Ottoman threat to the Slovene Lands, although sporadic Ottoman incursions continued well into the 17th century.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the western Slovene regions became the battlefield of the wars between the
Habsburg monarchy
and the
Venetian Republic
, most notably the
War of Gradisca
, which was largely fought in the Slovene
Gori?ka
region. Between the late 15th and early 18th centuries, the Slovene lands also witnessed many peasant wars, the best-known being the
Carinthian Peasant Revolt
of 1478, the
Slovene Peasant Revolt of 1515
, the
Croatian?Slovene Peasant Revolt
of 1573, the
Second Slovene Peasant Revolt
of 1635, and the
Tolmin Peasant Revolt
of 1713.
The late 17th century was also marked by a vivid intellectual and artistic activity. Many
Italian Baroque
artists, mostly architects and musicians, settled in the Slovene Lands, and contributed greatly to the development of the local culture. Artists like
Francesco Robba
,
Andrea Pozzo
,
Vittore Carpaccio
and
Giulio Quaglio
worked in the Slovenian territory, while scientists such as
Johann Weikhard von Valvasor
and
Johannes Gregorius Thalnitscher
contributed to the development of the scholarly activities. By the early 18th century, however, the region entered another period of stagnation, which was slowly overcome only by the mid-18th century.
Age of Enlightenment to the national movement
[
edit
]
Between the early 18th century and early 19th century, the Slovene lands experienced a period of peace, with a moderate economic recovery starting from mid-18th century onward. The
Adriatic
city of
Trieste
was declared a
free port
in 1718, boosting the economic activity throughout the western parts of the Slovene Lands. The political, administrative and economic reforms of the Habsburg rulers
Maria Theresa of Austria
and
Joseph II
improved the economic situation of the peasantry, and were well received by the emerging bourgeoisie, which was however still weak.
In the late 18th century, a process of
standardarization
of Slovene began, promoted by
Carniolan
clergymen like
Marko Pohlin
and
Jurij Japelj
. During the same period, peasant-writers began using and promoting the Slovene
vernacular
in the countryside. This popular movement, known as
bukovniki
, started among
Carinthian Slovenes
as part a wider revival of Slovene literature. The Slovene cultural tradition was strongly reinforced in the
Enlightenment
period in the 18th century by the endeavours of the
Zois Circle
. After two centuries of stagnation,
Slovene literature
emerged again, most notably in the works of the playwright
Anton Toma? Linhart
and the poet
Valentin Vodnik
. However, German remained the main language of culture, administration and education well into the 19th century.
Between 1805 and 1813, the Slovene-settled territory was part of the
Illyrian Provinces
, an autonomous province of the Napoleonic
French Empire
, the capital of which was established at
Ljubljana
. Although the French rule in the
Illyrian Provinces
was short-lived it significantly contributed to greater national self-confidence and awareness of freedoms. The French did not entirely abolish the
feudal system
, their rule familiarised in more detail the inhabitants of the
Illyrian Provinces
with the achievements of the
French Revolution
and with contemporary
bourgeois society
. They introduced equality before the law, compulsory
military service
for men and a uniform tax system, and also abolished certain tax privileges, introduced modern administration, separated powers between the state and the Church, and nationalised the judiciary.
In August 1813, Austria declared war on France. Austrian troops led by General
Franz Tomassich
invaded the Illyrian Provinces. After this short
French interim
all Slovene Lands were, once again, included in the
Austrian Empire
. Slowly, a distinct Slovene national consciousness developed, and the quest for a political unification of all Slovenes became widespread. In the 1820s and 1840s, the interest in Slovene language and folklore grew enormously, with numerous philologists collecting folk songs and advancing the first steps towards a standardization of the language. A small number of Slovene activist, mostly from
Styria
and
Carinthia
, embraced the
Illyrian movement
that started in neighboring
Croatia
and aimed at uniting all South Slavic peoples.
Pan-Slavic
and
Austro-Slavic
ideas also gained importance. However, the intellectual circle around the philologist
Matija ?op
and the Romantic poet
France Pre?eren
was influential in affirming the idea of Slovene linguistic and cultural individuality, refusing the idea of merging the Slovenes into a wider Slavic nation.
In 1848, a mass political and popular movement for the
United Slovenia
(
Zedinjena Slovenija
) emerged as part of the
Spring of Nations
movement within the Austrian Empire. Slovene activists demanded a unification of all Slovene-speaking territories in a unified and autonomous Slovene kingdom within the Austrian Empire. Although the project failed, it served as an almost undisputed platform of Slovene political activity in the following decades.
Clashing nationalisms in the late 19th century
[
edit
]
Between 1848 and 1918, numerous institutions (including theatres and publishing houses, as well as political, financial and cultural organisations) were founded in the so-called
Slovene National Awakening
. Despite their political and institutional fragmentation and lack of proper political representation, the Slovenes were able to establish a functioning national infrastructure.
With the introduction of a constitution granting civil and political liberties in the Austrian Empire in 1860, the Slovene national movement gained force. Despite its internal differentiation among the conservative
Old Slovenes
and the progressive
Young Slovenes
, the Slovene nationals defended similar programs, calling for a cultural and political autonomy of the Slovene people. In the late 1860s and early 1870s, a series of mass rallies called
tabori
, modeled on the Irish
monster meetings
, were organized in support of the United Slovenia program. These rallies, attended by thousands of people, proved the allegiance of wider strata of the Slovene population to the ideas of national emancipation.
By the end of the 19th century, Slovenes had established a standardized language, and a thriving civil society. Literacy levels were among the highest in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and numerous national associations were present at grassroots level.
[10]
The idea of a common political entity of all
South Slavs
, known as
Yugoslavia
, emerged.
[11]
Since the 1880s, a fierce
culture war
between Catholic traditionalists and
integralists
on one side, and liberals, progressivists and
anticlericals
dominated Slovene political and public life, especially in
Carniola
. During the same period, the growth of industrialization intensified social tensions. Both
Socialist
and
Christian socialist
movements mobilized the masses. In 1905, the first Socialist mayor in the Austro-Hungarian Empire was elected in the Slovene mining town of
Idrija
on the list of the
Yugoslav Social Democratic Party
. In the same years, the Christian socialist activist
Janez Evangelist Krek
organized hundreds of workers and agricultural
cooperatives
throughout the Slovene countryside.
At the turn of the 20th century, national struggles in ethnically mixed areas (especially in
Carinthia
,
Trieste
and in
Lower Styrian
towns) dominated the political and social lives of the citizenry. By the 1910s, the national struggles between Slovene and Italian speakers in the
Austrian Littoral
, and Slovene and German speakers, overshadowed other political conflicts and brought about a nationalist radicalization on both sides.
In the last two decades before World War One, Slovene arts and literature experienced one of its most flourishing periods, with numerous talented modernist authors, painters and architects.
[12]
The most important authors of this period were
Ivan Cankar
,
Oton ?upan?i?
and
Dragotin Kette
, while
Ivan Grohar
and
Rihard Jakopi?
were among the most talented Slovene visual artists of the time.
After the
Ljubljana earthquake
of 1895, the city experienced a rapid modernization under the charismatic
Liberal nationalist
mayors
Ivan Hribar
and
Ivan Tav?ar
. Architects like
Max Fabiani
and
Ciril Metod Koch
introduced their own version of the
Vienna Secession
architecture to Ljubljana. In the same period, the Adriatic port of
Trieste
became an increasingly important center of Slovene economy, culture and politics. By 1910, around a third of the city population was Slovene, and the number of Slovenes in Trieste was higher than in Ljubljana.
[13]
At the turn of the 20th century, hundreds of thousands of Slovenes emigrated to other countries, mostly to the
United States
, but also to
South America
,
Germany
,
[14]
Egypt
[15]
and to larger cities in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, especially
Zagreb
and
Vienna
. It has been calculated that around 300,000 Slovenes emigrated between 1880 and 1910, which means that one in six Slovenes left their homeland.
[16]
Emigration
[
edit
]
The period between the 1880s and
World War I
saw a mass emigration from the present-day Slovenia to America. The largest group of Slovenes eventually settled in
Cleveland, Ohio
, and the surrounding area. The second-largest group settled in Chicago, principally on the
Lower West Side
. Many Slovene immigrants went to southwestern Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio and the state of
West Virginia
to work in the coal mines and lumber industry. Some also went to the
Pittsburgh
or
Youngstown, Ohio
areas, to work in the steel mills, as well as
Minnesota
's
Iron Range
, to work in the iron mines.
During the First World War, which severely affected Slovenia in particular with the bloody soviet front and the politics of the great powers that threatened to dismantle the Slovene territory between several countries (
Treaty of London
, 1915), Slovenes have already tried to regulate their national position in the common state unit Croats and Serbs in the Habsburg Monarchy. The demand, known as the May Declaration, was given by the Slovene, Croatian and Serbian parliamentarians in the Vienna Parliament in the spring of 1917. The ruling circles of the Habsburg monarchy initially rejected the request, and subsequent government initiatives for the federalisation of the monarchy (for example, the October manifesto of Emperor Charles) was rejected by most Slovenian politicians, which has already leaned towards independence. The preservation of the reformed state was longest defended by the former head of the Slovenian People's Party and the last Provincial Commander-in-Chief of Carniola, Ivan ?uster?i?, who had few supporters and influence.
Merging into the Yugoslav state and struggle for the border areas
[
edit
]
The
Slovene People's Party
launched a movement for self-determination, demanding the creation of a semi-independent South Slavic state under
Habsburg
rule. The proposal was picked up by most Slovene parties, and a mass mobilization of Slovene civil society, known as the
Declaration Movement
, followed. By early 1918, more than 200,000 signatures were collected in favor of the Slovene People Party's proposal.
[17]
During the War, some 500 Slovenes served as volunteers in the Serbian army, while a smaller group led by Captain
Ljudevit Pivko
, served as volunteers in the Italian Army. In the final year of the war, many predominantly Slovene regiments in the Austro-Hungarian Army staged a mutiny against their military leadership; the best-known mutiny of Slovene soldiers was the
Judenburg Rebellion
in May 1918.
[18]
Following the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire in the aftermath of the
World War I
, a
National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
took power in Zagreb on 6 October 1918. On 29 October independence was declared by a national gathering in Ljubljana, and by the Croatian parliament, declaring the establishment of the new
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
. On 1 December 1918 the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs merged with
Serbia
, becoming part of the new
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
, itself being renamed in 1929 to
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
.
Slovenes whose territory fell under the rule of neighboring states Italy, Austria and Hungary, were subjected to policies of
assimilation
.
Border with Austria
[
edit
]
After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in late 1918, an
armed dispute started
between the Slovenes and
German Austria
for the regions of
Lower Styria
and southern
Carinthia
. In November 1918,
Rudolf Maister
seized
the city of
Maribor
and surrounding areas of Lower Styria in the name of the newly formed Yugoslav state. The Austrian government of Styria refrained from military intervention and also opposed a referendum, knowing that the vast majority of Lower Styria was ethnically Slovenian, while Maribor, Ptuj, and Celje had a German-speaking majority, partly as a result of assimilation of Slovenes.
[19]
Maribor and Lower Styria were eventually awarded to Yugoslavia in the
Treaty of Saint-Germain
.
Around the same time, a group of volunteers led by
Franjo Malgaj
attempted to take control of southern Carinthia. Fighting in Carinthia lasted between December 1918 and June 1919, when the Slovene volunteers and the regular Serbian Army managed to occupy the city of
Klagenfurt
. In compliance with the
Treaty of Saint-Germain
, the Yugoslav forces had to withdraw from Klagenfurt, while a referendum was to be held in other areas of southern Carinthia. In October 1920, the majority of the population of southern Carinthia
voted
to remain in Austria, and only a small portion of the province (around
Dravograd
and
Gu?tanj
) was awarded to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. With the
Treaty of Trianon
, on the other hand,
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
was awarded the Slovene-inhabited
Prekmurje
region, which had belonged to
Hungary
since the 10th century.
[
citation needed
]
Border with Italy
[
edit
]
In exchange for joining the
Allied Powers
in the
First World War
, the
Kingdom of Italy
, under the secret
Treaty of London (1915)
and later
Treaty of Rapallo (1920)
, was granted rule over much of the
Slovene
territories. These included a quarter of the Slovene ethnic territory, including areas that were exclusively ethnic Slovene. The population of the affected areas was approximately 327,000
[20]
of the total population of 1.3 million Slovenes.
[21]
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
[
edit
]
In 1921, against the vote of the great majority (70%) of Slovene MPs, a centralist constitution was passed in the
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
. Despite it, Slovenes managed to maintain a high level of
cultural autonomy
, and both economy and the arts prospered. Slovene politicians participated in almost all Yugoslav governments, and the Slovene conservative leader
Anton Koro?ec
briefly served as the only non-
Serbian
Prime Minister of Yugoslavia
in the period between the two world wars.
In 1929, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was renamed to
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
. The constitution was abolished, civil liberties suspended, while the centralist pressure intensified. Slovenia was renamed to
Drava Banovina
. During the whole interwar period, Slovene voters strongly supported the conservative
Slovene People's Party
, which unsuccessfully fought for the autonomy of Slovenia within a federalized Yugoslavia. In 1935, however, the Slovene People's Party joined the pro-regime
Yugoslav Radical Community
, opening the space for the development of a left wing autonomist movement. In the 1930s, the economic crisis created a fertile ground for the rising of both leftist and rightist radicalisms. In 1937, the
Communist Party of Slovenia
was founded as an autonomous party within the
Communist Party of Yugoslavia
. Between 1938 and 1941,
left liberal
,
Christian left
and
agrarian
forces established close relations with members of the illegal Communist party, aiming at establishing a broad
anti-Fascist
coalition.
The main territory of Slovenia, being the most industrialized and westernized among others less developed parts of Yugoslavia became the main center of industrial production: in comparison to
Serbia
, for example, in Slovenia the industrial production was four times greater and even twenty-two times greater than in
Vardar Banovina
.
[
citation needed
]
The interwar period brought a further industrialization in Slovenia, with a rapid economic growth in the 1920s followed by a relatively successful economic adjustment to the
1929 economic crisis
. This development however affected only certain areas, especially the
Ljubljana Basin
, the
Central Sava Valley
, parts of
Slovenian Carinthia
, and the urban areas around
Celje
and
Maribor
.
Tourism
experienced a period of great expansion, with resort areas like
Bled
and
Roga?ka Slatina
gaining an international reputation. Elsewhere, agriculture and forestry remained the predominant economic activities. Nevertheless, Slovenia emerged as one of the most prosperous and economically dynamic areas in Yugoslavia, profiting from a large Balkan market. Arts and literature also prospered, as did architecture. The two largest Slovenian cities, Ljubljana and Maribor, underwent an extensive program of urban renewal and modernization. Architects like
Jo?e Ple?nik
,
Ivan Vurnik
and
Vladimir ?ubic
introduced modernist architecture to Slovenia.
Fascist Italianization of Littoral Slovenes and resistance
[
edit
]
With a secret
Treaty of London
in 1915, the
Kingdom of Italy
was promised large portions of Austrian-Hungarian territory by the
Triple Entente
, in exchange for joining the Entente against the
Central Powers
in
World War I
. After the Central Powers were defeated in 1918, Italy went on to annex some of the promised territories, after signing the
treaty of Rapallo
with the new
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
in 1920. However, these areas also included a
quarter of Slovene ethnic territory
and approximately 327.000 out of total population of 1.3
[20]
million Slovenes, were annexed by the
Kingdom of Italy
[21]
The treaty left half a million Slavs (besides Slovenes also Croatians) inside Italy, while only a few hundred Italians in the fledgling Yugoslav state".
[22]
Trieste
was at the end of 19th century de facto the largest Slovene city, having had more
Slovene
inhabitants than
Ljubljana
. After being ceded from the multi-ethnic Austria, Italian lower middle class?who felt most threatened by the city's Slovene middle class?sought to make Trieste "citta italianissima", committing series of attacks, led by
Black Shirts
, on Slovene shops, libraries, lawyer offices, and the central place of the rival community in
Narodni dom
.
[23]
Forced
Italianization
followed and by the mid-1930s, several thousand Slovenes, especially intellectuals from Trieste region, emigrated to the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
and to
South America
.
The present-day Slovenian municipalities of
Idrija
,
Ajdov??ina
,
Vipava
,
Kanal
,
Postojna
,
Pivka
, and
Ilirska Bistrica
, were subjected to forced
Italianization
. The
Slovene minority in Italy (1920-1947)
lacked any minority protection under international or domestic law.
[24]
Clashes between the Italian authorities and
Fascist squads
on one side, and the local Slovene population on the other, started as early as 1920, culminating with the burning of the
Narodni dom
, the Slovenian National Hall of
Trieste
. After all Slovene minority organizations in Italy had been suppressed, the
militant anti-fascist
organization
TIGR
was formed in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence. The anti-Fascist guerrilla movement continued throughout the late 1920s and 1930s.
[25]
[
citation needed
]
When Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania joined the
Tripartite pact
in 1940, pressure greatly increased on Yugoslavia to join in as Hitler was trying to protect its southern flank before
launching the attack on the Soviet Union
. The signing of the Treaty of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia with Germany on March 25, 1941, was followed two days later by a coup led by aviation general Du?an Simovi?. Regent prince Pavel was thrown out and authority was granted to young Peter. General Simovi? took over the provisional administration of the government. Thus, Yugoslavia did not seem to be reliable anymore to Hitler, and so on April 6, 1941, according to the operation Marita and without a formal declaration of war, Axis forces invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The attack began with the bombing of Belgrade, killing 20,000 people. The resistance of the Yugoslav royal army was only symbolic, as only half of the recruits were able to collect due to slow mobilization, and the military equipment and doctrine of Serbia from the Balkan wars and the First World War were obsolete. Thus, on April 10, German troops have already reached Zagreb and on April 12 Belgrade. The Italian army launched its attack only on April 11, when Hungary joined. At that time, the German army was already in Karlovac. The Italian army split into two parts: it penetrated the part towards both Ljubljana and beyond via Ko?evje, and the second part penetrated via Dalmatia. The German army also broke out of Bulgaria and with the mobilized units easily prevented the withdrawal of the Yugoslav army into the Thessaloniki front.
Shortly after the attack, the National People's Council was formed under the leadership of Marko Natla?en, who called for a peaceful handover of weapons and expelled the occupier. After the capitulation of the Yugoslav army, Hungary took over most of Prekmurje. In 1941, five Slovene settlements were established under the authority of NDH: Bregansko selo (now called Slovenska vas), Nova vas near Bregana (now Nova vas near Mokrice), Jesenice in Dolenjska, Obre?je and ?edem. The territory was about 20 square kilometers, with about 800 inhabitants at that time.
The Italians in the beginning held a moderate policy in their occupied territory. In this way, bilingualism coincided, Italian was introduced into schools only as a teaching subject, all non-political, cultural and sports associations allowed it. In the occupied territory, composed of Ljubljana, Notranjska and Dolenjska with approximately 320,000 inhabitants, Italy established the Province of Ljubljana (Italian Provincia di Lubiana). After the first successful rebel actions of the occupants in the occupied territory, the Italian authorities changed the policy and began the program of ethnic cleansing [15]. The execution of this plot led to the expulsion of approximately 35,000 civilians, of whom in the Italian concentration camps, in 1942 and 1943, about 3500 men, women and children died of hunger and disease [16] That this was an attempt to ethnic cleansing, results not only from the very large number of people killed and displaced, but also from the statements and orders of the high Italian officers, and in particular from the content of the notorious 3C circular, signed by General Mario Roatta on March 1, 1942. ]
The German form of occupation was the tiniest of all three, since they banned all Slovenian newspapers, German was introduced into schools as a language, the adults were violently enrolled in the Styrian Homeland Association and the Carinthian People's Union or their armed sections. The official language has also become German. They violently took away 600 children who seemed to satisfy the criteria of the Aryan race and assigned them to the Lebensborn organization, they introduced Nazi laws, and later began to mobilize the military, which was contrary to international law, ...
On April 26, 1941, the Anti-Imperialist Front was set up in Ljubljana (renamed the Liberation Front) in the German invasion of the Soviet Union, which began an armed struggle against the occupiers. The founding groups of the Anti-Imperialist Front were: the Communist Party of Slovenia, part of the Christian Socialists, the democratic part of the Liberal Gymnastical Society Sokol and a part of the cultural workers who were unconnected. In memory of this event was determined April 27 as the day of the resistance against the occupier.
In Volkmerjev prehod in Maribor, on April 29, 1941, two anti-German-style young men under the leadership of Bojan Ilich burned two personal cars of the German Civil Administration. This was the first rebuffing anti-occupation campaign in occupied Slovenia, which was born out of a revolt at the trance, which was visited by Hitler during the three days before that of most of the German Germans. Nazi police arrested about 60 young men, but they soon released them because they could not prove their participation in the fire. On June 22, 1941, the main command of the Partisan forces was established and on the same day, the Secrets of the Liberation Movement OF were published. Subsequently, on November 1, 1941, the Basic Points of the OF, whose points 8 and 9 were written under the influence of the Atlantic Charter, were also published. By the signing of the Dolomite Declaration on March 1, 1943, the leading role in the Liberation Front was taken over by the Communist Party of Slovenia, which in the victorious national liberation struggle itself assumed all power.
In 1943, a liberated territory was formed in Ko?evje, where the OF organized the Ko?evski Choir, in which it elected the highest organ of the Slovenian state, adopted a decision on joining the Primorska Slovenia and elected a delegation for the II. sitting AVNOJ.
At the end of the war, the Slovene Partisan army, together with the Yugoslav Army and the Soviet Red Army, freed the entire Slovenian ethnic territory. The VOS departments under the command of the Communist Party and the Soviet model, after the end of the war, mostly performed post-war extrajudicial killings against civilian and military personnel. Up to 600 graves have been evacuated so far throughout Slovenia.
Slovenia in Titoist Yugoslavia
[
edit
]
Following the re-establishment of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, Slovenia became part of the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
, declared on 29 November 1943. A socialist state was established, but because of the
Tito?Stalin split
, economic and personal freedoms were broader than in the
Eastern Bloc
. In 1947, Italy ceded most of the
Julian March
to Yugoslavia, and Slovenia thus regained the
Slovenian Littoral
. The towns of
Koper
,
Izola
, and
Piran
, Italian-populated urban enclaves saw mass ethnic Italian and anti-Communist emigration (part of the
Istrian Exodus
) due to the ongoing
Foibe massacres
and other revenge against them for
Italian war crimes
and due to their fear of Communism, which by 1947 had
nationalised
all private property.
[
citation needed
]
The dispute over the port of
Trieste
however remained open until 1954, until the short-lived
Free Territory of Trieste
was divided among Italy and Yugoslavia, thus giving Slovenia access to the sea. This division was ratified only in 1975 with the
Treaty of Osimo
, which gave a final legal sanction to Slovenia's long disputed western border. From the 1950s, the
Socialist Republic of Slovenia
enjoyed a relatively wide autonomy.
Stalinist period
[
edit
]
Between 1945 and 1948, a wave of political repressions took place in Slovenia and in Yugoslavia. Thousands of people were imprisoned for their political beliefs. Several tens of thousands of Slovenes left Slovenia immediately after the war in fear of Communist persecution. Many of them settled in
Argentina
, which became the core of Slovenian anti-Communist emigration. More than 50,000 more followed in the next decade, frequently for economic reasons, as well as political ones. These later waves of Slovene immigrants mostly settled in
Canada
and in
Australia
, but also in other western countries.
[26]
The 1948 Tito?Stalin split and aftermath
[
edit
]
In 1948, the
Tito?Stalin split
took place. In the first years following the split, the political repression worsened, as it extended to Communists accused of
Stalinism
. Hundreds of Slovenes were imprisoned in the concentration camp of
Goli Otok
, together with thousands of people of other nationalities. Among the show trials that took place in Slovenia between 1945 and 1950, the most important were the
Nagode Trial
against democratic intellectuals and left liberal activists (1946) and the
Dachau trials
(1947?1949), where former inmates of
Nazi concentration camps
were accused of collaboration with the Nazis. Many members of the Roman Catholic clergy also suffered persecution. The case of bishop of Ljubljana
Anton Vovk
, who was doused with gasoline and set on fire by Communist activists during a pastoral visit to
Novo Mesto
in January 1952, echoed in the western press.
[27]
[28]
[29]
1950s: heavy industrialization
[
edit
]
In the late 1950s, Slovenia was the first of the Yugoslav republics to begin a process of relative pluralization. A decade of
industrialisation
was accompanied also by a fervent cultural and literary production with many tensions between the regime and the dissident intellectuals. From the late 1950s onward, dissident circles started to be formed, mostly around short-lived independent journals, such as
Revija 57
(1957?1958), which was the first independent intellectual journal in Yugoslavia and one of the first of this kind in the Communist bloc,
[30]
and
Perspektive
(1960?1964). Among the most important critical public intellectuals in this period were the sociologist
Jo?e Pu?nik
, the poet
Edvard Kocbek
, and the literary historian
Du?an Pirjevec
.
1960s: "Self-management"
[
edit
]
By the late 1960s, the reformist faction gained control of the
Slovenian Communist Party
, launching a series of reforms, aiming at the modernization of Slovenian society and economy. A new economic policy, known as
workers self-management
started to be implemented under the advice and supervision of the main theorist of the Yugoslav Communist Party, the Slovene
Edvard Kardelj
.
1970s-1980s: "Years of Lead"
[
edit
]
In 1973, this trend was stopped by the conservative faction of the Slovenian Communist Party, backed by the Yugoslav Federal government. A period known as the "Years of Lead" (Slovene:
svin?ena leta
) followed. During this period, censorship and repression of the press and artists increased, while freedom of speech declined. Many people were jailed because of their political beliefs.
1980s: Towards independence
[
edit
]
In the 1980s, Slovenia experienced a rise of cultural pluralism. Numerous grass-roots political, artistic and intellectual movements emerged, including the
Neue Slowenische Kunst
, the
Ljubljana school of psychoanalysis
, and the
Nova revija
intellectual circle. By the mid-1980s, a reformist fraction, led by
Milan Ku?an
, took control of the Slovenian Communist Party, starting a gradual reform towards controlled
political pluralism
.
The Yugoslav economic crisis of the 1980s increased the struggles within the Yugoslav Communist regime regarding the appropriate economic measures to be undertaken. Slovenia, which had less than 10% of overall Yugoslav population, produced around a fifth of the country's GDP and a fourth of all Yugoslav exports. The political disputes around economic measures was echoed in the public sentiment, as many Slovenes felt they were being economically exploited, having to sustain an expensive and inefficient federal administration.
In 1987 and 1988, a series of clashes between the emerging
civil society
and the Communist regime culminated with the
Slovene Spring
. In 1987, a group of liberal intellectuals published a manifesto in the alternative
Nova revija
journal; in their so-called
Contributions for the Slovenian National Program
, they called for democratization and a greater independence for Slovenia. Some of the articles openly contemplated Slovenia's independence from Yugoslavia and the establishment of a full-fedged parliamentary democracy. The manifesto was condemned by the Communist authorities, but the authors did not suffer any direct repression, and the journal was not suppressed (although the editorial board was forced to resign). At the end of the same year, a massive strike broke out in the Litostroj manufacturing plant in
Ljubljana
, which led to the establishment of the first independent trade union in Yugoslavia. The leaders of the strike established an independent political organization, called the
Social Democratic Union of Slovenia
. Soon afterwards, in mid May 1988, an independent
Peasant Union of Slovenia
was organized. Later in the same month, the Yugoslav Army arrested four Slovenian journalists of the alternative magazine
Mladina
, accusing them of revealing state secrets. The so-called
Ljubljana trial
triggered mass protests in Ljubljana and other Slovenian cities. (See:
1987-1988 Slovenia protests
)
A mass democratic movement, coordinated by the
Committee for the Defense of Human Rights
, pushed the Communists in the direction of democratic reforms. These revolutionary events in Slovenia pre-dated by almost one year the
Revolutions of 1989
in Eastern Europe, but went largely unnoticed by international observers.
At the same time, the confrontation between the
Slovenian
and
Serbian Leagues of Communists
(which was dominated by the nationalist leader
Slobodan Milo?evi?
), became the most important political struggle in Yugoslavia. The poor economic performance of the Federation, and rising clashes between the different republics, created a fertile soil for the rise of secessionist ideas among Slovenes, both anti-Communists and Communists. On 27 of September 1989 the Slovenian Assembly made many amendments to the 1974 constitution including the abandonment of the
League of Communists of Slovenia
monopoly on political power and the reassertion of Slovenia's right to leave Yugoslavia.
[31]
In an action named "Action North" in 1989, Slovene police forces, members of which later organized their own veteran organization, prevented several hundred Milo?evi? supporters from meeting in Ljubljana on 1 December at a so-called
Rally of Truth
, with an attempt to overthrow Slovenian leadership because of its opposition to Serb centralist policy. The action can be considered the first defense action for Slovenian independence.
[32]
[33]
[34]
On 23 January 1990, the
League of Communists of Slovenia
, in protest against the domination of the Serb nationalist leadership, walked out of the
14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
which effectively ceased to exist as a national party ? they were followed soon after by the
League of Communists of Croatia
.
In September 1989, numerous
constitutional amendments
were passed by the
Assembly
, which introduced
parliamentary democracy
to Slovenia.
[35]
[36]
On 7 March 1990, the Slovenian Assembly passed the amendment XCI changing the official name of the state to the
Republic of Slovenia
dropping the word 'Socialist'. The new name has been official since 8 March 1990.
[37]
[38]
Republic of Slovenia
[
edit
]
Free elections
[
edit
]
On 30 December 1989 Slovenia officially opened the spring 1990 elections to opposition parties thus inaugurating
multi-party democracy
. The
Democratic Opposition of Slovenia
(DEMOS) coalition of democratic political parties was created by an agreement between the
Slovenian Democratic Union
, the
Social Democrat Alliance of Slovenia
, the
Slovene Christian Democrats
, the
Farmers' Alliance
and the
Greens of Slovenia
. The leader of the coalition was the well-known
dissident
Jo?e Pu?nik
.
[39]
On 8 April 1990,
the first free multiparty parliamentary elections
, and the first round of the presidential elections, were held.
DEMOS
defeated the former Communist party in the parliamentary elections, by gathering 54% of the votes.
[37]
A coalition government led by the
Christian Democrat
Lojze Peterle
was formed, and began economic and political reforms that established a
market economy
and a liberal democratic political system. At the same time, the government pursued the independence of Slovenia from Yugoslavia.
Milan Ku?an
was elected president in the second round of the presidential elections on 22 April 1990, defeating the
DEMOS
candidate
Jo?e Pu?nik
.
Ku?an presidency (1990?2002)
[
edit
]
The DEMOS government (1990?1992): Independence
[
edit
]
Milan Ku?an strongly opposed the preservation of Yugoslavia through violent means. After the concept of a loose
confederation
failed to gain support by the republics of Yugoslavia, Ku?an favoured a controlled process of non-violent disassociation that would enable the collaboration of the former Yugoslav nations on a new, different basis.
On 23 December 1990, a
referendum on the independence of Slovenia
was held, in which the more than 88% of Slovenian residents voted for the independence of Slovenia from Yugoslavia. Slovenia became independent through the passage of the appropriate acts on 25 June 1991.
[40]
[41]
In the morning of the next day, a short
Ten-Day War
began, in which the Slovenian forces successfully rejected Yugoslav military interference.
[40]
[42]
In the evening, the independence was solemnly proclaimed in Ljubljana by the Speaker of the Parliament
France Bu?ar
. The Ten-Day War lasted till 7 July 1991,
[42]
when the
Brijuni Agreement
was made, with the
European Community
as a mediator, and the
Yugoslav National Army
started its withdrawal from Slovenia. On 26 October 1991, the last Yugoslav soldier left Slovenia.
[42]
On 23 December 1991 the Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia passed a new Constitution, which became the first
Constitution of independent Slovenia
.
[43]
Ku?an represented Slovenia at the peace conference on former Yugoslavia in
the Hague
and
Brussels
which concluded that the former Yugoslav nations were free to determine their future as independent states. On May 22, 1992 Ku?an represented Slovenia as it became a new member of the
United Nations
.
The most important achievement of the Coalition, however, was the declaration of independence of Slovenia on 25 June 1991, followed by a
Ten-Day War
in which the
Slovenians
rejected
Yugoslav
military interference.
As a result of internal disagreements the coalition fell apart in 1992. It was officially dissolved in April 1992 in agreement with all the parties that had composed it. Following the collapse of
Lojze Peterle
's government, a new coalition government, led by
Janez Drnov?ek
was formed, which included several parties of the former DEMOS.
Jo?e Pu?nik
became vice-president in Drnov?ek's cabinet, guaranteeing some continuity in the government policies.
The first country to recognise Slovenia as an independent country was Croatia on 26 June 1991. In the second half of 1991, some of the countries formed after the collapse of the
Soviet Union
recognized Slovenia. These were the Baltic countries Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and Georgia, Ukraine, and Belarus. On 19 December 1991, Iceland and Sweden recognised Slovenia, and Germany passed a resolution on the recognition of Slovenia, realised alongside the
European Economic Community
(EEC) on 15 January 1992. On 13, respectively 14 January 1992, the
Holy See
and San Marino recognised Slovenia. The first transmarine countries to recognise Slovenia were Canada and Australia on the 15, respectively 16 January 1992. The United States was at first very reserved towards the Slovenian independence and recognised Slovenia only on 7 April 1992.
The recognition by the EEC was particularly significant for Slovenia, as in December 1991 the EEC passed criteria for the international recognition of newly founded countries, which included
democracy
, the respect for
human rights
, the government of
law
, and the respect for the
national minority rights
. The recognition of Slovenia therefore indirectly also meant that Slovenia had been meeting the passed criteria.
[44]
In December 1992, after the independence and the international recognition of Slovenia, Ku?an was elected as the first
president of Slovenia
in the
1992 presidential election
, with the support of the citizens list. He won another five-year term in the
1997 election
, running again as an independent and again winning the majority in the first round.
Drnov?ek premiership (1992?2002): Re-orientation of Slovenia's trade
[
edit
]
Drnov?ek was the second
Prime Minister
of independent Slovenia. He was chosen as a compromise candidate and an expert in economic policy, transcending ideological and programmatic divisions between parties. Drnov?ek's governments reoriented Slovenia's trade away from Yugoslavia towards the West and contrary to some other former Communist countries in
Eastern Europe
, the economic and social transformation followed a
gradualist
approach.
[45]
After six months in opposition from May 2000 to Autumn 2000, Drnov?ek returned to power again and helped to arrange the first meeting between
George W. Bush
and
Vladimir Putin
(
Bush-Putin 2001
).
Drnov?ek presidency (2002?2007); EU and NATO membership
[
edit
]
Drnov?ek held the position of the
president
from 2002 to 2007. During the term, in March 2003, Slovenia held
two referendums on joining the EU and NATO
. Slovenia joined NATO on 29 March 2004.
[46]
and the European Union on 1 May 2004.
[47]
On 1 January 2007 Slovenia joined the
Eurozone
and adopted the
euro
as its currency.
[48]
Jan?a premiership (2004?2008): Unsustainable growth
[
edit
]
Janez Jan?a
was
Prime Minister of Slovenia
from November 2004 to November 2008 for the first time. During the term characterized by over-enthusiasm after joining EU, between 2005 and 2008 the Slovenian banks have seen
loan-deposit ratio
veering out of control, over-borrowing from foreign banks and then over-crediting private sector, leading to its unsustainable growth.
Turk presidency (2007?2012)
[
edit
]
Danilo Turk
held the position of the
president
from 2007 to 2012.
Pahor premiership (2008?2012): Blocked reforms
[
edit
]
Borut Pahor
was
Prime Minister of Slovenia
from November 2008 until February 2012. Faced by the
global economic crisis
his government proposed economic reforms, but they were rejected by the opposition leader Janez Jan?a and blocked by
referendums in 2011
.
[49]
On the other hand, the voters
voted in favour
of an arbitration agreement with Croatia, aimed to solve the
border dispute
between the countries, emerging after the breakup of Yugoslavia.
[49]
In 2010, Slovenia joined the
OECD
.
[50]
Pahor presidency (2012-2022)
[
edit
]
Pahor has held the position of
president
since 2012. In November 2017, Slovenian President Borut Pahor was re-elected for a second term in close
election
.
[51]
Jan?a premiership (2012?2013): Anti-corruption report
[
edit
]
Jan?a was
Prime Minister of Slovenia
from February 2012 until March 2013 for the second time. He was replaced by the first female PM in history of Slovenia,
Alenka Bratu?ek
, after the official
anti-corruption agency
's
Report on the Parliamentary Parties' Leaders
was issued.
[52]
[53]
[54]
Former prime minister Janez Jan?a spent six months in prison in 2014 after being convicted on bribery charges related to a 2006 arms deal. Jan?a had denied any wrongdoing.
[55]
Miro Cerar
was prime minister since September 2014 until March 2018. His government coalition included Cerar's Party of Modern Centre, the Social Democrats and pensioners’ party DeSUS.
[56]
In June 2018, the center-right Slovenia Democratic Party (SDS) of former prime minister Janez Jan?a won in the
election
. SDS secured 25 seats in the 90-seat parliament. A center-left party, The List of
Marjan ?arec
(LM?), was in second place with 13 seats. Cerar's Party of The Modern Centre was fourth with just 10 seats.
[57]
In August 2018, new prime minister Marjan ?arec formed a minority government made up of five center-left parties.
[58]
In January 2020, prime minister ?arec resigned because his minority government was too weak to push through important legislation.
[59]
Jan?a premiership (2020-2022)
[
edit
]
In March 2020, Janez Jan?a became prime minister for third time in the new coalition government of SDS, the Modern Centre Party (SMC), New Slovenia (NSi) and Pensioners' Party (DeSUS). Jan?a had previously been prime minister from 2004 to 2008 and from 2012 to 2013.
[60]
Janez Jan?a was known as a right-wing populist and an outspoken supporter of former US President
Donald Trump
. Jan?a was also known as an ally of right-wing Prime Minister
Viktor Orban
of Hungary.
[61]
[62]
Golob premiership (2022-)
[
edit
]
In April 2022, liberal opposition, The
Freedom Movement
, won the parliamentary
election
. The Freedom Movement won 34.5% of the vote, compared with 23.6% for Jan?a’s
Slovenian Democratic party
.
[63]
On 25 May 2022, Slovenia’s parliament voted to appoint the leader of Freedom Movement,
Robert Golob
, as the new
Prime Minister of Slovenia
to succeed Janez Jan?a.
[64]
In November 2022,
Natasa Pirc Musar
, liberal candidate and lawyer, won the second round of Slovenia's
presidential election
, becoming Slovenia's first female president.
[65]
Pirc Musar presidency (2022-)
[
edit
]
On 23 December 2022, Nata?a Pirc Musar became Slovenia’s fifth president to succeed her predecessor Borut Pahor.
[66]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"World's Oldest Wheel Found in Slovenia | Government Communication Office"
.
www.ukom.gov.si
. Archived from
the original
on 2016-08-26
. Retrieved
2017-02-26
.
- ^
"Application for the Title of the European Capital of Culture 2012"
(PDF)
. City Municipality of Maribor. 2008.
[
permanent dead link
]
- ^
"Two appliques"
.
National Museum of Slovenia
. 2022.
These extraordinary appliques were part of treasures deposited in the Bronze Age as an offering to gods on the shore of Lake Bled. The prestigious gold appliques also indicate that the lake was an important centre of a cult. ... Similar appliques have been discovered in Switzerland, Bavaria and Hungary, mainly in Bronze Age fortified settlements and in the graves of wealthy women. ... The ornamentation bears markings of the solar and lunar year.
- ^
Popovski, Ivan (2017).
A Short History of South East Europe
. Lulu Press, Inc.
ISBN
9781365953941
.
- ^
Edo ?kulj, ed., Trubarjev simpozij (Rome ? Celje ? Ljubljana: Celjska Mohorjeva dru?ba, Dru?tvo Mohorjeva dru?ba, Slovenska teolo?ka akademija, In?titut za zgodovino Cerkve pri Teolo?ki fakulteti, 2009).
- ^
?tih, Peter (1993). "Naselitev slovencev".
Enciklopedija Slovenije
. Vol. 7 (Marin-Nor). Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. p. 338.
- ^
Magocsi, Paul Robert (1993).
Historical Atlas of East Central Europe
. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. p. 99.
- ^
?olski zgodovinski atlas
(2 ed.). Ljubljana: DZS. 1996. pp. 16, 21.
- ^
Spezialortsrepertorium der Oesterreichischen Laender. VII. Oesterreichisch-Illyrisches Kuestenland. Wien, 1918, Verlag der K.K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei
- ^
Bojan Balkovec et al. eds,
Slovenska kronika XX stoletja
, vol. 1 (Ljubljana: Nova revija, 1995)
- ^
Lojze Ude
,
Slovenci in jugoslovanska skupnost
(Maribor: Obzorja, 1972).
- ^
Du?an Pirjevec
,
Ivan Cankar in evropska literatura
(Ljubljana: Cankarjeva zalo?ba, 1964)
- ^
Boris M. Gomba?
,
Trst-Trieste ? dve imeni, ena identiteta
(Ljubljana-Trieste: Narodni muzej, tr?a?ka zalo?ba, 1993).
- ^
Bo?idar Tensundern,
Vestfalski Slovenci
(Klagenfurt: Dru?ba svetega Mohorja, 1973)
- ^
Arctur d.o.o.
"aleksandrinke"
. Archived from
the original
on 2012-02-12
. Retrieved
2012-02-19
.
- ^
Vovko, Andrej (1990). "Izseljenstvo".
Enciklopedija Slovenije
. Vol. 4 (Hac?Kare). Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. p. 233.
- ^
Kranjec, Silvo (1925?1991). "Koro?ec Anton".
Slovenski biografski leksikon
(in Slovenian) (Online ed.).
Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
. Archived from
the original
on 23 August 2011
. Retrieved
24 July
2010
.
- ^
?vajncer, Janez J.
"Military history of Slovenians"
(PDF)
. The Slovenian. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 29 November 2010
. Retrieved
17 October
2010
.
- ^
Helmut Rumpler, Arnold Suppan (1988).
Geschichte der deutschen im Bereich des heutigen Slowenien, 1848-1941
(in German). Verlag fur Geschichte und Politik. p. 135.
- ^
a
b
c
Lipu??ek, U. (2012)
Sacro egoismo: Slovenci v krempljih tajnega londonskega pakta 1915
, Cankarjeva zalo?ba, Ljubljana.
ISBN
978-961-231-871-0
- ^
a
b
c
Cresciani, Gianfranco (2004). "Clash of civilisations"
Archived
2020-05-06 at the
Wayback Machine
,
Italian Historical Society Journal,
Vol. 12, No. 2, p. 4
- ^
Hehn, Paul N. (2005)
A Low Dishonest Decade: Italy, the Powers and Eastern Europe, 1918?1939.
, Chapter 2,
Mussolini, Prisoner of the Mediterranean
- ^
Morton, Graeme; R. J. Morris; B. M. A. de Vries (2006).
Civil Society, Associations, and Urban Places: Class, Nation, and Culture in Nineteenth-century Europe
,
Ashgate Publishing
, UK
- ^
Hehn, Paul N. (2005).
A Low Dishonest Decade: The Great Powers, Eastern Europe, and the Economic Origins of World War II, 1930?1941
. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 44?45.
ISBN
0-8264-1761-2
.
- ^
Petzer, Tatjana (2013).
"The inner orient in Slovene literature"
.
Slavica Tergestina: European Slavic Studies Journal
.
ISSN
1592-0291
. Archived from
the original
on 2018-04-20
. Retrieved
2019-03-18
.
- ^
Susel, Rudolph.
"SLOVENES"
.
Case Western Reserve University
. Retrieved
25 March
2024
.
- ^
"Yugoslav Prelate Victim of 'Ideological Hatred'
"
.
The Tablet
. Brooklyn, NY. March 22, 1952. p. 7
. Retrieved
November 29,
2020
– via
Newspapers.com
.
- ^
"Vatican Protests Attack"
.
Edmonton Journal
. Admonton, Alberta. January 31, 1952. p. 22
. Retrieved
November 29,
2020
– via
Newspapers.com
.
- ^
"Slav Paper Blames Priest for Beating"
.
Abilene Reporter-News
. Abilene, TX. January 28, 1952. p. 20
. Retrieved
November 29,
2020
– via
Newspapers.com
.
- ^
Taras Kermauner
,
Slovensko perspektivovstvo
(Znanstveno in publicisti?no sredi??e, 1996).
- ^
"Year 1989 ? Slovenia 20 years"
. Archived from
the original
on 2011-06-30
. Retrieved
2011-06-11
.
- ^
"Historical Circumstances in Which "The Rally of Truth" in Ljubljana Was Prevented"
. Journal of Criminal Justice and Security. Archived from
the original
on 13 December 2013
. Retrieved
4 July
2012
.
- ^
"
"Rally of truth" (Miting resnice)"
. A documentary published by
RTV Slovenija
. Retrieved
4 July
2012
.
- ^
"akcijasever.si"
. The "North" Veteran Organization. Archived from
the original
on 29 December 2017
. Retrieved
3 July
2012
.
- ^
Zajc, Drago (2004).
Razvoj parlamentarizma: funkcije sodobnih parlamentov
[
The Development of Parliamentarism: The Functions of Modern Parliaments
]
(PDF)
(in Slovenian). Publishing House of the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. p. 109.
ISBN
961-235-170-8
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2012-04-26
. Retrieved
2011-12-27
.
- ^
"Osamosvojitveni akti Republike Slovenije"
[Independence Acts of the Republic of Slovenia] (in Slovenian). Office for Legislation, Government of the Republic of Slovenia. Archived from
the original
on 17 January 2012
. Retrieved
27 December
2011
.
- ^
a
b
"Year 1990 ? Slovenia 20 years"
. Archived from
the original
on 2012-06-11
. Retrieved
2011-06-11
.
- ^
"Odlok o razglasitvi ustavnih amandmajev k ustave Socialisti?ne Republike Slovenije"
[The Decree About the Proclamation of Constitutional Amendments to the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia]
(PDF)
.
Uradni List Republike Slovenije
(in Slovenian). 16 March 1990
. Retrieved
27 December
2011
.
- ^
The A to Z of Slovenia
ISBN
978-0-810-87216-5
p. 343
- ^
a
b
Race, Helena (2005).
"Dan prej" ? 26. junij 1991: diplomsko delo
[
"A Day Before" ? 26 June 1991: Diploma Thesis
]
(PDF)
(in Slovenian). Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana
. Retrieved
3 February
2011
.
- ^
Janko Prunk
(2001).
"Path to Slovene State"
. Public Relations and Media Office, Government of the Republic of Slovenia
. Retrieved
3 February
2011
.
- ^
a
b
c
"About the Slovenian Military Forces: History"
. Slovenian Armed Forces, Ministry of Defence. Archived from
the original
on 19 May 2009
. Retrieved
3 February
2011
.
- ^
"Year 1991 ? Slovenia 20 years"
. Archived from
the original
on 2011-05-30
. Retrieved
2011-06-11
.
- ^
"Mineva 20 let od prvih zahodnoevropskih priznanj Slovenije"
[It's been 20 year from the first Western-European recognitions] (in Slovenian). Primorske novice. 18 December 2011. Archived from
the original
on 10 June 2012
. Retrieved
18 December
2011
.
- ^
"Janez Drnovsek: Slovenian president who achieved membership of the EU and Nato for the former Yugoslav republic"
Archived
2015-07-05 at the
Wayback Machine
The Independent Feb 25th 2008
- ^
"Slovenia's NATO membership | GOV.SI"
.
Portal GOV.SI
.
- ^
"Slovenia"
.
european-union.europa.eu
.
- ^
"Slovenia joins the euro area - European Commission"
.
- ^
a
b
"Zgodba o neki levi vladi :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija"
. Rtvslo.si
. Retrieved
23 October
2011
.
- ^
"Slovenia's accession to the OECD"
.
www.oecd.org
.
- ^
Novak, Marja (12 November 2017).
"Slovenia's President Pahor wins second term in close race"
.
Reuters
.
- ^
Official News
Archived
2013-03-08 at the
Wayback Machine
on the Commission's website, 10 January 2013, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- ^
Most powerful politicians do not know where they got the money
(In Slovene: "Najmo?nej?a politika ne vesta odkod jima denar"),
Delo
, 9 January 2013
- ^
?erdin, A. (2013)
There is no room for an unexplained sources of money in the public servants' budgets
(In Slovene: "V bilancah funkcionarjev ni prostora za gotovino neznanega izvora"),
Delo
- ^
"Janez Jan?a Walks Out of Prison. But is He in the Clear? | SLEEPING WITH PENGOVSKY"
. 12 December 2014.
- ^
Novak, Marja (14 March 2018).
"Slovenian PM Cerar resigns as pressure mounts ahead of election"
.
Reuters
.
- ^
Novak, Marja (4 June 2018).
"Anti-immigration party wins Slovenia elections"
.
Reuters
.
- ^
"Comedian gets new role: Prime minister of Slovenia"
.
NBC News
. 18 August 2018.
- ^
"Slovenian Prime Minister Sarec resigns, calls snap election | DW | 27.01.2020"
.
Deutsche Welle
.
- ^
"Jan?a Sworn in as Slovenia's Prime Minister-Designate"
.
- ^
"Janez Jansa: Slovenia votes out pro-Trump populist"
.
BBC News
. 25 April 2022.
- ^
"Orban Meeting Jansa: "We are not troublemakers, merely stronger than we were"
"
.
Hungary Today
. 21 February 2022.
- ^
"Slovenia's Jan?a defeated by opposition liberal Freedom Movement"
.
euronews
. 24 April 2022.
- ^
"Slovenian lawmakers approve liberal-green leader as new PM"
.
The Independent
. 25 May 2022.
- ^
"Slovenia elects first female president in runoff vote"
.
France 24
. 13 November 2022.
- ^
Angle?ki, S. T. A. (22 December 2022).
"Nata?a Pirc Musar sworn in as Slovenia's fifth president"
.
Slovenia Times
. Archived from
the original
on 25 December 2022
. Retrieved
28 December
2022
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Oto Luthar (ed),
The Land Between: A history of Slovenia. With contributions by Oto Luthar, Igor Grdina, Marjeta ?a?el Kos, Petra Svolj?ak, Peter Kos, Du?an Kos, Peter ?tih, Alja Brglez and Martin Poga?ar
(Frankfurt am Main etc., Peter Lang, 2008).
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
|
* in order of population and territory size
|
|
---|
Sovereign states
| |
---|
States with limited
recognition
| |
---|
Dependencies and
other entities
| |
---|
Other entities
| |
---|