The
history of Asia
can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as
East Asia
,
South Asia
,
Southeast Asia
and the
Middle East
linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian
steppe
. See
History of the Middle East
and
History of the Indian Subcontinent
for further details on those regions.
The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations and religions, with each of three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. These valleys were fertile because the soil there was rich and could bear many root crops. The civilizations in
Mesopotamia
,
ancient India
, and
ancient China
shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states, and then empires developed in these lowlands.
The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes, they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The northern part of the continent, covering much of
Siberia
was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the
tundra
. These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated.
The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The
Caucasus
,
Himalaya
,
Karakum Desert
, and
Gobi Desert
formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.
The
spread of Islam
waved the
Islamic Golden Age
and the
Timurid Renaissance
, which later influenced the age of
Islamic gunpowder empires
.
Asia's history features major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well as events that have affected those other regions. These include the trade of the
Silk Road
, which spread cultures, languages, religions, and diseases throughout Afro-Eurasian trade. Another major advancement was the innovation of
gunpowder
in medieval China, later developed by the Gunpowder empires, mainly by the
Mughals
and
Safavids
, which led to advanced warfare through the use of guns.
Prehistory
[
edit
]
A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa,
India
shows new C14 datings that range between 9000 and 8000 BC associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia.
[2]
Settled life
emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the
Indus River
alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the
Indus Valley Civilisation
of the third millennium BC.
Gobekli Tepe
is a
Neolithic
site in the
Southeastern Anatolia Region
of
Turkey
. Dated to the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic
, between
c.
9500 and 8000 BC, the site comprises a number of large circular structures supported by massive stone pillars ? the world's oldest known
megaliths
.
The
prehistoric Beifudi site
near Yixian in
Hebei
Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the
Cishan
and
Xinglongwa
cultures of about 8000?7000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the
Taihang Mountains
, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.
[3]
Around 5500 BC the
Halafian
culture appeared in
Lebanon
,
Israel
,
Syria
,
Anatolia
, and northern
Mesopotamia
, based upon dryland agriculture.
In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of
Sumer
and
Elam
. Since there was little rainfall,
irrigation
systems were necessary. The
Ubaid
culture flourished from 5500 BC.
Ancient
[
edit
]
Bronze Age
[
edit
]
The
Chalcolithic
period (or Copper Age) began about 4500 BC, then the
Bronze Age
began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.
The
Indus Valley civilization
(IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300?1300 BC; mature period 2600?1900 BC) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include
Harappa
and
Mohenjo-daro
, which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BC is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding).
[4]
This era marks
Vedic period
in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BC. During this period, the
Sanskrit
language developed and the
Vedas
were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into
Hinduism
.
China and
Vietnam
were also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam.
Song Da bronze drum's surface, Dong Son culture, Vietnam
In Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC.
In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating is still currently broad (3500?500 BC).
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(
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Iron and Axial Age
[
edit
]
The Iron Age saw the widespread use of iron tools, weaponry, and armor throughout the major civilizations of Asia.
Middle East
[
edit
]
The
Achaemenid dynasty
of the
Persian Empire
, founded by
Cyrus the Great
, ruled an area from
Greece
and
Turkey
to the
Indus River
and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BC. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly
centralized government
, and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in
Darius the Great
's rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials. The primary religion of Persia at this time was
Zoroastrianism
, developed by the philosopher
Zoroaster
. It introduced an early form of
monotheism
to the area. The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an
end time
, and both
general
and
Particular judgment
with a
heaven
or
hell
. These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses. It was itself heavily influenced by earlier much older ancient religious beliefs and practices dating to the beginning of known history and before. The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion.
Alexander the Great
conquered this dynasty in the 4th century BC, creating the brief
Hellenistic period
. He was unable to establish stability and after his death, Persia broke into small, weak dynasties including the
Seleucid Empire
, followed by the
Parthian Empire
. By the end of the Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into the
Sassanid Empire
, also known as the second Persian Empire.
The
Roman Empire
would later control parts of Western Asia. The
Seleucid
,
Parthian
and
Sassanid
dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries.
India
[
edit
]
The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions of
Hinduism
and
Buddhism
, which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia.
By 600 BC, India had been divided into 17 regional states that would occasionally feud amongst themselves. In 327 BC,
Alexander the Great
came to India with a vision of conquering the whole world. He crossed northwestern India and created the province
Bactria
but could not move further because his army wanted to go back to their family. Shortly prior, the soldier
Chandragupta Maurya
began to take control of the Ganges river and soon established the
Maurya Empire
. The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: ????? ??????, Maurya R?java??a) was the geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. It was one of the world's largest empires in its time, stretching to the
Himalayas
in the north, what is now
Assam
in the east, probably beyond modern
Pakistan
in the west, and annexing
Balochistan
and much of what is now
Afghanistan
, at its greatest extent. South of Mauryan empire was the
Tamilakam
, an independent country dominated by three dynasties, the
Pandyans
,
Cholas
and
Cheras
. The government established by Chandragupta was led by an autocratic king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power.
It also applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service.
Chandragupta's grandson,
Ashoka
, greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India (save for the southern tip). He eventually converted to Buddhism, though, and began a peaceful life where he promoted the religion as well as humane methods throughout India. The Maurya Empire would disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan invaders from the northwest, establishing the
Kushan Empire
. Their conversion to Buddhism caused the religion to be associated with foreigners and therefore a decline in its popularity occurred.
The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 AD, creating more political turmoil in India. Then in 320, the
Gupta Empire
(Sanskrit: ????? ??????, Gupta R?javan?ha) was established and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by
Maharaja Sri-Gupta
, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. Gupta kings united the area primarily through negotiation of local leaders and families as well as strategical intermarriage.
Their rule covered less land than the Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability.
In 535, the empire ended when India was overrun by the
Hunas
.
Classical China
[
edit
]
Zhou dynasty
[
edit
]
Since 1029 BC, the
Zhou dynasty
(
Chinese
:
周朝
;
pinyin
:
Zh?u Chao
;
Wade?Giles
:
Chou Ch'ao
[t?o?
t?????]
), had existed in China and it would continue to until 258 BC.
The Zhou dynasty had been using a
feudal system
by giving power to local nobility and relying on their loyalty in order to control its large territory.
As a result, the Chinese government at this time tended to be very decentralized and weak, and there was often little the emperor could do to resolve national issues. Nonetheless, the government was able to retain its position with the creation of the
Mandate of Heaven
, which could establish an emperor as divinely chosen to rule. The Zhou additionally discouraged the
human sacrifice
of the preceding eras and unified the
Chinese language
. Finally, the Zhou government encouraged settlers to move into the
Yangtze River
valley, thus creating the Chinese Middle Kingdom.
But by 500 BC, its political stability began to decline due to repeated nomadic incursions
and internal conflict derived from the fighting princes and families. This was lessened by the many philosophical movements, starting with the life of
Confucius
. His philosophical writings (called
Confucianism
) concerning the respect of elders and of the state would later be popularly used in the Han dynasty. Additionally,
Laozi
's concepts of
Taoism
, including
yin and yang
and the innate duality and balance of nature and the universe, became popular throughout this period. Nevertheless, the Zhou dynasty eventually disintegrated as the local nobles began to gain more power and their conflict devolved into the
Warring States period
, from 402 to 201 BC.
Qin dynasty
[
edit
]
One leader eventually came on top,
Qin Shi Huang
(
Chinese
:
始皇帝
,
Sh? Huangdi
), who overthrew the last Zhou emperor and established the Qin dynasty.
The
Qin dynasty
(Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qin Chao) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC.
The new Emperor abolished the feudal system and directly appointed a bureaucracy that would rely on him for power. Huang's imperial forces crushed any regional resistance, and they furthered the Chinese empire by expanding down to the
South China Sea
and northern
Vietnam
. Greater organization brought a uniform tax system, a national census, regulated road building (and cart width), standard measurements, standard coinage, and an official written and spoken language.
Further reforms included new irrigation projects, the encouragement of
silk
manufacturing,
and (most famously) the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China?designed to keep out the nomadic raiders who'd constantly badger the Chinese people. However, Shi Huang was infamous for his tyranny, forcing laborers to build the Wall, ordering heavy taxes, and severely punishing all who opposed him. He oppressed Confucians and promoted
Legalism
, the idea that people were inherently evil, and that a strong, forceful government was needed to control them. Legalism was infused with realistic, logical views and rejected the pleasures of educated conversation as frivolous. All of this made Shi Huang extremely unpopular with the people. As the Qin began to weaken, various factions began to fight for control of China.
Han dynasty
[
edit
]
The
Han dynasty
(
simplified Chinese
:
?朝
;
traditional Chinese
:
漢朝
;
pinyin
:
Han Chao
; 206 BC ? 220 AD) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220?265 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han dynasty's greatest emperors,
Emperor Wu of Han
, established a peace throughout China comparable to the
Pax Romana
seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later.
To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people". The Han dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into
Korea
,
Vietnam
, and
Central Asia
, creating an even larger empire than the Qin.
The Han developed contacts with the Persian Empire in the Middle East and the Romans, through the
Silk Road
, with which they were able to trade many commodities?primarily silk. Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the
Silk Road
, which connected China,
India
, the Middle East and Europe. Han emperors like Wu also promoted Confucianism as the national "religion" (although it is debated by theologians as to whether it is defined as such or as a philosophy). Shrines devoted to Confucius were built and Confucian philosophy was taught to all scholars who entered the Chinese bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was further improved with the introduction of an examination system that selected scholars of high merit. These bureaucrats were often upper-class people educated in special schools, but whose power was often checked by the lower-class brought into the bureaucracy through their skill. The Chinese imperial bureaucracy was very effective and highly respected by all in the realm and would last over 2,000 years. The Han government was highly organized and it commanded the military, judicial law (which used a system of courts and strict laws), agricultural production, the economy, and the general lives of its people. The government also promoted intellectual philosophy, scientific research, and detailed historical records.
However, despite all of this impressive stability, central power began to lose control by the turn of the
Common Era
. As the Han dynasty declined, many factors continued to pummel it into submission until China was left in a state of chaos. By 100 AD, philosophical activity slowed, and corruption ran rampant in the bureaucracy. Local landlords began to take control as the scholars neglected their duties, and this resulted in heavy taxation of the peasantry. Taoists began to gain significant ground and protested the decline. They started to proclaim magical powers and promised to save China with them; the Taoist
Yellow Turban Rebellion
in 184 (led by rebels in yellow scarves) failed but was able to weaken the government. The aforementioned Huns combined with diseases killed up to half of the population and officially ended the Han dynasty by 220. The ensuing period of chaos was so terrible it lasted for three centuries, where many weak regional rulers and dynasties failed to establish order in China. This period of chaos and attempts at order is commonly known as that of the
Six Dynasties
. The first part of this included the
Three Kingdoms
which started in 220 and describes the brief and weak successor "dynasties" that followed the Han. In 265, the
Jin dynasty
of China was started and this soon split into two different empires in control of northwestern and southeastern China. In 420, the conquest and abdication of those two dynasties resulted in the first of the
Southern and Northern dynasties
. The Northern and Southern dynasties passed through until finally, by 557, the
Northern Zhou dynasty
ruled the north and the
Chen dynasty
ruled the south.
Medieval
[
edit
]
During this period, the
Eastern world
empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas. Gunpowder was widely used as early as the 11th century and they were using moveable type printing five hundred years before Gutenberg created his press. Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism were the dominant philosophies of the Far East during the Middle Ages.
Marco Polo
was not the first Westerner to travel to the Orient and return with amazing stories of this different culture, but his accounts published in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were the first to be widely read throughout Europe.
Western Asia (Middle East)
[
edit
]
The Arabian peninsula and the surrounding
Middle East
and
Near East
regions saw dramatic change during the Medieval era caused primarily by the spread of
Islam
and the establishment of the Arabian Empires.
In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the
Sassanian Empire
of the
Persians
in what is now
Iran
and
Iraq
, and the Byzantine Empire in
Anatolia
(modern-day
Turkey
). The Byzantines and Sassanians fought with each other continually, a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power. Meanwhile, the nomadic
Bedouin
tribes who dominated the Arabian desert saw a period of tribal stability, greater trade networking and a familiarity with Abrahamic religions or monotheism.
While the
Byzantine
Roman and
Sassanid
Persian empires were both weakened by the
Byzantine?Sasanian War of 602?628
, a new power in the form of
Islam
grew in the Middle East under
Muhammad in Medina
. In a series of rapid
Muslim conquests
, the
Rashidun army
, led by the
Caliphs
and skilled military commanders such as
Khalid ibn al-Walid
, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory in the
Arab?Byzantine wars
and completely engulfing Persia in the
Muslim conquest of Persia
. It would be the Arab
Caliphates
of the
Middle Ages
that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant
ethnic identity
that persists today. These Caliphates included the
Rashidun Caliphate
,
Umayyad Caliphate
,
Abbasid Caliphate
, and later the
Seljuq Empire
.
After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an
Islamic Golden Age
, inspiring achievements in
architecture
, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in
medicine
,
algebra
,
geometry
,
astronomy
,
anatomy
, and
ethics
that would later finds it way back to Western Europe.
The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the
Seljuq Turks
, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the
Hejaz
. This was followed by a series of Christian Western Europe invasions. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging
Holy Roman Empire
, to enter the region. In 1099 the knights of the
First Crusade
captured
Jerusalem
and founded the
Kingdom of Jerusalem
, which survived until 1187, when
Saladin
retook the city. Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the
Mongol Empire
, swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in the
Siege of Baghdad (1258)
and advancing as far south as the border of
Egypt
in what became known as the
Mongol conquests
. The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol,
Timur
, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the
Ottomans
.
Central Asia
[
edit
]
Mongol Empire
[
edit
]
The
Mongol Empire
conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Medieval Asia was the kingdom of the Khans. Never before had any person controlled as much land as
Genghis Khan
. He built his power unifying separate Mongol tribes before expanding his kingdom south and west. He and his grandson, Kublai Khan, controlled lands in China, Burma, Central Asia, Russia, Iran, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. Genghis Khan was a Khagan who tolerated nearly every religion.
South Asia/Indian Subcontinent
[
edit
]
India
[
edit
]
The Indian early medieval age, 600 to 1200, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When
Harsha
of
Kannauj
, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the
Chalukya
ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the
Pala
king of
Bengal
. When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the
Pallavas
from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the
Pandyas
and the
Cholas
from still farther south. The Cholas could under the rule of
Raja Raja Chola
defeat their rivals and rise to a regional power. Cholas expanded northward and defeated
Eastern Chalukya
,
Kalinga
and the
Pala
. Under
Rajendra Chola
the Cholas created the first notable navy of Indian subcontinent. The
Chola navy
extended the influence of Chola empire to
southeast asia
. During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.
[12]
The
Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
mainly took place from the 12th century onwards, though earlier Muslim conquests include the limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and the Umayyad campaigns in India, during the time of the Rajput kingdoms in the 8th century.
Major economic and military powers like the
Delhi Sultanate
and
Bengal Sultanate
, were seen to be established. The search of their wealth led the
Voyages of Christopher Columbus
.
The Vijayanagara Empire based in the Deccan Plateau region of South India, was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, patronized by saint Vidyaranya, the 12th Shankaracharya of Sringeri in Karnataka.
[13]
The empire rose to prominence as a result of attempts by the southern powers to resist and ward off Turkic Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's rulers and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river region. After annexing modern day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Kingdom, became a notable power.
[14]
The Kingdome lasted until 1646 after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.
East Asia
[
edit
]
China
[
edit
]
China saw the rise and fall of the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties and therefore improvements in its bureaucracy, the spread of
Buddhism
, and the advent of
Neo-Confucianism
. It was an unsurpassed era for Chinese ceramics and painting. Medieval architectural masterpieces the Great South Gate in Todaiji, Japan, and the Tien-ning Temple in Peking, China are some of the surviving constructs from this era.
Sui dynasty
[
edit
]
A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580s, amongst the divided factions of China. This was started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the Northern Zhou dynasty. He proclaimed himself
Emperor Wen of Sui
and appeased the nomadic military by abandoning the Confucian scholar-gentry. Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the southern Chen dynasty and united China once more under the
Sui dynasty
. The emperor lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market. Later Wen's son would murder him for the throne and declare himself
Emperor Yang of Sui
. Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders. Yang became an excessive leader who overused China's resources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to
conquer Goguryeo
. His military failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618, ending the Sui dynasty.
Tang dynasty
[
edit
]
Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse. He proclaimed himself
Emperor Gaozu
, and established the
Tang dynasty
in 623. The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest to Tibet in the west,
Vietnam
in the south, and Manchuria in the north. Tang emperors also improved the education of scholars in the Chinese bureaucracy. A Ministry of Rites was established and the examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs.
:
p. 270
In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and the elite, the
Pure Land
and
Zen
strains, respectively.
:
pp. 271?272
Greatly supporting the spread of Buddhism was
Empress Wu
, who additionally claimed an unofficial "Zhou dynasty" and displayed China's tolerance of a woman ruler, which was rare at the time. However, Buddhism would also experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This would usually involve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them.
:
p. 273
The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule of
Emperor Xuanzong
, who began to neglect the economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive influence of his concubine,
Yang Guifei
, and her family.
:
p. 274
This eventually sparked a revolt in 755.
:
p. 274
Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leaders?leaving the government and economy in a degraded state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 and various factions led by the aforementioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control of China in the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
.
Liao, Song and Jin dynasties
[
edit
]
By 960, most of China proper had been reunited under the
Song dynasty
, although it lost territories in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes there?the
Liao dynasty
of the highly sinicized
Khitan people
. From then on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion and thus set the precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them. The Song also saw the revival of Confucianism in the form of
Neo-Confucianism
. This had the effect of putting the Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists and also intensified the reduction of power in women. The infamous practice of
foot binding
developed in this period as a result. Eventually the Liao dynasty in the north was overthrown by the
Jin dynasty
of the Manchu-related
Jurchen people
. The new Jin kingdom
invaded northern China
, leaving the Song to flee farther south and creating the
Southern Song dynasty
in 1126. There, cultural life flourished.
Yuan dynasty
[
edit
]
By 1227, the Mongols had conquered the
Western Xia
kingdom northwest of China. Soon the Mongols incurred upon the Jin empire of the Jurchens. Chinese cities were soon besieged by the Mongol hordes that showed little mercy for those who resisted and the Southern Song Chinese were quickly losing territory. In 1271 the current great khan,
Kublai Khan
, claimed himself Emperor of China and officially established the Yuan dynasty. By 1290, all of China was under control of the Mongols, marking the first time they were ever completely conquered by a foreign invader; the new capital was established at
Khanbaliq
(modern-day
Beijing
). Kublai Khan segregated Mongol culture from Chinese culture by discouraging interactions between the two peoples, separating living spaces and places of worship, and reserving top administrative positions to Mongols, thus preventing Confucian scholars to continue the bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, Kublai remained fascinated with Chinese thinking, surrounding himself with Chinese Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucian advisors.
Mongol women displayed a contrasting independent nature compared to the Chinese women who continued to be suppressed. Mongol women often rode out on hunts or even to war. Kublai's wife,
Chabi
, was a perfect example of this; Chabi advised her husband on several political and diplomatic matters; she convinced him that the Chinese were to be respected and well-treated in order to make them easier to rule.
:
p. 327
However, this was not enough to affect Chinese women's position, and the increasingly Neo-Confucian successors of Kublai further repressed Chinese and even Mongol women.
The Black Death, which would later ravage Western Europe, had its beginnings in Asia, where it wiped out large populations in China in 1331.
[17]
[18]
Japan
[
edit
]
Asuka period
[
edit
]
Japan's medieval history began with the
Asuka period
, from around 600 to 710. The time was characterized by the
Taika Reform
and imperial centralization, both of which were a direct result of growing Chinese contact and influences. In 603,
Prince Sh?toku
of the
Yamato dynasty
began significant political and cultural changes. He issued the
Seventeen-article constitution
in 604, centralizing power towards the emperor (under the title
tenno
, or heavenly sovereign) and removing the power to levy taxes from provincial lords. Sh?toku was also a patron of Buddhism and he encouraged building temples competitively.
Nara period
[
edit
]
Sh?toku's reforms transitioned Japan to the
Nara period
(c. 710 to c. 794), with the moving of the Japanese capital to
Nara
in
Honshu
. This period saw the culmination of Chinese-style writing, etiquette, and architecture in Japan along with Confucian ideals
to supplement the already present Buddhism. Peasants revered both Confucian scholars and Buddhist monks. However, in the wake of the
735?737 Japanese smallpox epidemic
, Buddhism gained the status of state religion and the government ordered the construction of numerous Buddhist temples, monasteries, and statues.
The lavish spending combined with the fact that many aristocrats did not pay taxes, put a heavy burden on peasantry that caused poverty and famine.
Eventually the Buddhist position got out of control, threatening to seize imperial power and causing
Emperor Kanmu
to move the capital to
Heian-ky?
to avoid a Buddhist takeover.
This marked the beginning of the
Heian period
and the end of Taika reform.
Heian period
[
edit
]
With the Heian period (from 794 to 1185) came a decline of imperial power. Chinese influence also declined, as a result of its correlation with imperial centralization and the
heavenly mandate
, which came to be regarded as ineffective. By 838, the Japanese court discontinued its embassies in China; only traders and Buddhist monks continued to travel to China. Buddhism itself came to be considered more Japanese than Chinese, and persisted to be popular in Japan. Buddhists monks and monasteries continued their attempts to gather personal power in courts, along with aristocrats. One particular noble family that dominated influence in the imperial bureaucracy was the
Fujiwara clan
. During this time cultural life in the imperial court flourished. There was a focus on beauty and social interaction and writing and literature was considered refined. Noblewomen were cultured the same as noblemen, dabbling in creative works and politics. A prime example of both Japanese literature and women's role in high-class culture at this time was
The Tale of Genji
, written by the
lady-in-waiting
Murasaki Shikibu
. Popularization of wooden palaces and
sh?ji
sliding doors amongst the nobility also occurred.
Loss of imperial power also led to the rise of provincial warrior elites. Small lords began to function independently. They administered laws, supervised public works projects, and collected revenue for themselves instead of the imperial court. Regional lords also began to build their own armies. These warriors were loyal only their local lords and not the emperor, although the imperial government increasingly called them in to protect the capital. The regional warrior class developed into the
samurai
, which created its own culture: including specialized weapons such as the
katana
and a form of chivalry,
bushido
. The imperial government's loss of control in the second half of the Heian period allowed banditry to grow, requiring both feudal lords and Buddhist monasteries to procure warriors for protection. As imperial control over Japan declined, feudal lords also became more independent and seceded from the empire. These feudal states squandered the peasants living in them, reducing the farmers to an almost
serfdom
status. Peasants were also rigidly restricted from rising to the samurai class, being physically set off by dress and weapon restrictions. As a result of their oppression, many peasants turned to Buddhism as a hope for reward in the afterlife for upright behavior.
With the increase of feudalism, families in the imperial court began to depend on alliances with regional lords. The Fujiwara clan declined from power, replaced by a rivalry between the
Taira clan
and the
Minamoto clan
. This rivalry grew into the
Genpei War
in the early 1180s. This war saw the use of both samurai and peasant soldiers. For the samurai, battle was ritual and they often easily cut down the poorly trained peasantry. The Minamoto clan proved successful due to their rural alliances. Once the Taira was destroyed, the Minamoto established a military government called the
shogunate
(or bakufu), centered in
Kamakura
.
Kamakura period
[
edit
]
The end of the Genpei War and the establishment of the
Kamakura shogunate
marked the end of the Heian period and the beginning of the
Kamakura period
in 1185, solidifying feudal Japan.
Korea
[
edit
]
The three Kingdoms of Korea involves
Goguryeo
in north,
Baekje
in southwest, and
Silla
in southeast Korean peninsula. These three kingdoms act as a bridge of cultures between China and Japan.
Prince Sh?toku
of Japan had been taught by two teachers. One was from
Baekje
, the other was from
Goguryeo
. Once Japan invaded
Silla
, Goguryeo helped Silla to defeat Japan.
Baekje
met the earliest heyday of them. Its heyday was the 5th century AD. Its capital was
Seoul
. During its heyday, the kingdom made colonies overseas. Liaodong, China and Kyushu, Japan were the colonies of
Baekje
during its short heyday.
Goguryeo
was the strongest kingdom of all. They sometimes called themselves as an Empire. Its heyday was 6th century. King Gwanggaeto widened its territory to north. So Goguryeo dominated from Korean peninsula to Manchuria. And his son,
King Jangsu
widened its territory to south. He occupied
Seoul
, and moved its capital to
Pyeongyang
. Goguryeo almost occupied three quarters of South Korean peninsula thanks to king Jangsu who widened the kingdom's territory to south.
Silla
met the latest heyday. King Jinheung went north and occupied
Seoul
. But it was short.
Baekje
became stronger and attacked Silla. Baekje occupied more than 40 cities of Silla. So Silla could hardly survive.
China's Sui dynasty invaded
Goguryeo
and
Goguryeo?Sui War
occurred between Korea and China.
Goguryeo
won against China and
Sui dynasty
fell. After then,
Tang dynasty
reinvaded
Goguryeo
and helped
Silla
to unify the peninsula.
Goguryeo
,
Baekje
, and Japan helped each other against Tang-Silla alliance, but
Baekje
and
Goguryeo
fell. Unfortunately,
Tang dynasty
betrayed
Silla
and invaded Korean peninsula in order to occupy the whole Korean peninsula (
Silla-Tang war
).
[
citation needed
]
Silla advocated 'Unification of Three Korea', so people of fallen Baekje and Goguryeo helped Silla against Chinese invasion. Eventually Silla could beat China and unified the peninsula. This war helped Korean people to unite mentally.
[
citation needed
]
North-South States Period
[
edit
]
The rest of
Goguryeo
people established
Balhae
and won the war against Tang in later 7th century AD.
Balhae
is the north state, and
Later Silla
was the south state. Balhae was a quite strong kingdom as their ancestor Goguryeo did. Finally, the Emperor of Tang dynasty admits Balhae as 'A strong country in the East'. They liked to trade with Japan, China, and Silla. Balhae and Later Silla sent a lot of international students to China. And Arabian merchants came into Korean peninsula, so Korea became known as 'Silla' in the western countries. Silla improved Korean writing system called Idu letters. Idu affected
Katakana
of Japan.
Liao dynasty
invaded
Balhae
in early 10th century, so
Balhae
fell.
Later Three Kingdoms of Korea
[
edit
]
The unified Korean kingdom, Later Silla divided into three kingdoms again because of the corrupt central government. It involves
Later Goguryeo
(also as known as "Taebong"),
Later Baekje
, and Later Silla. The general of
Later Goguryeo
, Wang Geon took the throne and changed the name of kingdom into
Goryeo
, which was derived by the ancient strong kingdom,
Goguryeo
, and Goryeo reunified the peninsula.
Goryeo
[
edit
]
Goryeo
reunited the Korean peninsula during the later three kingdoms period and named itself as 'Empire'. But nowadays, Goryeo is known as a kingdom. The name 'Goryeo' was derived from
Goguryeo
, and the name
Korea
was derived from Goryeo. Goryeo adopted people from fallen
Balhae
. They also widened their territory to north by
defending Liao dynasty
and attacking the
Jurchen people
. Goryeo developed a splendid culture. The first metal type printed book
Jikji
was also from Korea. The
Goryeo ware
is one of the most famous legacies of this kingdom. Goryeo imported Chinese government system and developed into their own ways.
During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula. The
Tripitaka Koreana
is 81,258 books total. It was made to keep Korea safe against the Mongolian invasion. It is now a UNESCO world heritage. Goryeo won the battle against
Liao dynasty
. Then, the
Mongolian Empire
invaded Goryeo. Goryeo did not disappear but it had to obey Mongolians. After 80 years, in 14th century, the Mongolian dynasty Yuan lost power, King Gongmin tried to free themselves against Mongol although his wife was also Mongolian. At the 14th century,
Ming dynasty
wanted Goryeo to obey China. But Goryeo didn't. They decided to invade China. Going to China, the general of Goryeo, Lee Sung-Gae came back and destroyed Goryeo. Then, in 1392, he established new dynasty,
Joseon
. And he became
Taejo of Joseon
, which means the first king of
Joseon
.
Southeast Asia
[
edit
]
Khmers
[
edit
]
In 802,
Jayavarman II
consolidated his rule over neighboring peoples and declared himself
chakravartin
, or "universal ruler". The Khmer Empire effectively dominated all
Mainland Southeast Asia
from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time they developed a sophisticated monumental architecture of most exquisite expression and mastery of composition at
Angkor
.
Vietnam
[
edit
]
The history of Vietnam can be traced back to around 20,000 years ago, as the first modern humans arrived and settled on this land, known as the
Hoabinhians
, which can be traced back to the modern-day Negritos. Archaeological findings from 1965, which are still under research, show the remains of two hominins closely related to the Sinanthropus, dating as far back as the
Middle Pleistocene
era, roughly half a million years ago.
Pre-historic Vietnam was home to some of the world's earliest civilizations and societies?making them one of the world's first people who had practiced agriculture. The Red River valley formed a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the north and west by mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the
Red River Delta
. The need to have a single authority to prevent floods of the Red River, to cooperate in constructing hydraulic systems, trade exchange, and to repel invaders, led to the creation of the first legendary Vietnamese states approximately 2879 BC. While in the later times, ongoing research from archaeologists have suggested that the Vietnamese
đong S?n culture
were traceable back to Northern Vietnam, Guangxi and Laos around 700 BC.
Vietnam's long coastal and narrowed lands, rugged mountainous terrains, with two major deltas, were soon home to several different ancient cultures and civilizations. In the north, the đong S?n culture and its indigenous chiefdoms of
V?n Lang
and
Au L?c
started to flourish by 500 BC. In Central,
Sa Hu?nh culture
of
Austronesian Chamic peoples
also thrived. Both were swept by the Chinese
Han dynasty
expansion from the north - the Han conquest of
Nanyue
brought parts of Vietnam under the Chinese rule in 111 BC. Traditional Chinese became the official script as well as the later developed independent
Nom script
of Vietnamese.
In 40 BC, the
Tr?ng Sisters
led the first uprising of indigenous tribes and peoples against
Chinese domination
. The rebellion was however defeated, but as the Han dynasty began to weaken by late 2nd century and China (中?) started to descend into state of turmoil, the indigenous peoples of Vietnam rose again and some became free. In 192 AD, the Chams of Central Vietnam revolted against the Chinese and subsequently became independent
Kingdom of Champa
, while the Red River Delta saw loosening Northern control. At that time, with the introduction of
Buddhism
and
Hinduism
by the second century AD, Vietnam was the first place in Southeast Asia which shared influences of both
Indian
and
Sino cultures
, and the rise of first Indianized kingdoms Champa and
Funan
.
During these 1,000 years there were many uprisings against Chinese domination, and at certain periods Vietnam was independently governed under the Tr?ng Sisters,
Early Ly
,
Khuc
and
D??ng đinh Ngh?
?although their triumphs and reigns were temporary.
When
Ngo Quy?n
(
Emperor of Vietnam
, 938?944) restored sovereign power in the country with the victory at
The battle of B?ch đ?ng River
(938), the next millennium was advanced by the accomplishments of successive local dynasties:
Ngo
,
đinh
,
Early Le
,
Ly
,
Tr?n
,
H?
,
Later Tr?n
,
Later Le
,
M?c
,
Revival Le
,
Tay S?n
and
Nguy?n
. Nom script (Ch? Nom) of the Vietnamese started to develop and become more sophisticated, with literature being published and written in Nom. At various points during the imperial dynasties, Vietnam was ravaged and divided by civil wars and witnessed interventions by the
Song
,
Yuan
,
Cham
,
Ming
,
Siamese
,
Qing
,
French
, and
Empire of Japan
.
The
Ming Empire
conquered the Red River valley for a while before
native Vietnamese
regained control and the French Empire reduced Vietnam to a French dependency for nearly a century, followed by brief but brutal occupation by the Japanese Empire. During the French period, widespread brutality, inequality and cultural remnants of
Han-Nom
were being destroyed, with the French wishing to rid the Vietnamese of their
Confucian legacy
from the 1880s. French was the official language during this period. The
Vietnamese Latin script
, seen to be a Latin transliteration of Han-Nom, superseded the Han-Nom logographic scripts and became the main mode of written as well as spoken language since the 20th century.
Japan invaded in 1940, creating deep resentment that fuelled resistance to post-World War II military-political efforts by the returning power of France, and the United States who had viewed themselves as fighters for liberty and democracy against the red waves of
communism
. In the
Vietnam War
, the United States or the
Western Bloc
supported
South Vietnam
and the
Soviet Union
or the
Eastern Bloc
supported
North Vietnam
. Political upheaval, a period of intense fighting and war, followed by Communist insurrection and victory further put an end to the monarchy after World War II, and the country was proclaimed a Socialist Republic. Vietnam suffered heavy sanctions as well as political and economic isolation following brutal wars with China and Cambodia in the successive years. Following that era, the
đ?i M?i
(renovation/innovation) reformations were enacted. The forces of market liberalisation and globalisation has shaped
Vietnam's economic
and political circumstances since.
Early modern
[
edit
]
The
Russian Empire
began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of
Siberia
and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The
Ottoman Empire
controlled Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the
Manchu
conquered China and established the
Qing dynasty
. In the 16th century, the
Mughal Empire
controlled much of India and initiated the second golden age for India. China was the largest economy in the world for much of the time, followed by India until the 18th century.
Ming China
[
edit
]
By 1368,
Zhu Yuanzhang
had claimed himself
Hongwu Emperor
and established the Ming dynasty of China. Immediately, the new emperor and his followers drove the Mongols and their culture out of China and beyond the Great Wall.
:
p. 503
The new emperor was somewhat suspicious of the scholars that dominated China's bureaucracy, for he had been born a peasant and was uneducated.
:
p. 503
Nevertheless, Confucian scholars were necessary to China's bureaucracy and were reestablished as well as reforms that would improve the exam systems and make them more important in entering the bureaucracy than ever before. The exams became more rigorous, cut down harshly on cheating, and those who excelled were more highly appraised. Finally, Hongwu also directed more power towards the role of emperor so as to end the corrupt influences of the bureaucrats.
Society and economy
[
edit
]
The Hongwu emperor, perhaps for his sympathy of the common-folk, had built many irrigation systems and other public projects that provided help for the peasant farmers.
:
p. 504
They were also allowed to cultivate and claim unoccupied land without having to pay any taxes and labor demands were lowered.
:
p. 504
However, none of this was able to stop the rising landlord class that gained many privileges from the government and slowly gained control of the peasantry. Moneylenders foreclosed on peasant debt in exchange for mortgages and bought up farmer land, forcing them to become the landlords' tenants or to wander elsewhere for work.
Also during this time,
Neo-Confucianism
intensified even more than the previous two dynasties (the Song and Yuan). Focus on the superiority of elders over youth, men over women, and teachers over students resulted in minor discrimination of the "inferior" classes. The fine arts grew in the Ming era, with improved techniques in brush painting that depicted scenes of court, city or country life; people such as scholars or travelers; or the beauty of mountains, lakes, or marshes. The Chinese novel fully developed in this era, with such classics written such as
Water Margin
,
Journey to the West
, and
Jin Ping Mei
.
Economics grew rapidly in the Ming dynasty as well. The introduction of American crops such as
maize
,
sweet potatoes
, and
peanuts
allowed for cultivation of crops in infertile land and helped prevent famine. The population boom that began in the Song dynasty accelerated until China's population went from 80 or 90 million to 150 million in three centuries, culminating in 1600.
:
p. 507
This paralleled the market economy that was growing both internally and externally. Silk, tea, ceramics, and lacquer-ware were produced by artisans that traded them in Asia and to Europeans. Westerners began to trade (with some Chinese-assigned limits), primarily in the port-towns of
Macau
and
Canton
. Although merchants benefited greatly from this, land remained the primary symbol of wealth in China and traders' riches were often put into acquiring more land.
:
p. 507
Therefore, little of these riches were used in private enterprises that could've allowed for China to develop the
market economy
that often accompanied the highly-successful Western countries.
Foreign interests
[
edit
]
In the interest of national glory, the Chinese began sending impressive
junk
ships across the
South China Sea
and the
Indian Ocean
. From 1403 to 1433, the
Yongle Emperor
commissioned
expeditions
led by the admiral
Zheng He
, a Muslim
eunuch
from China. Chinese junks carrying hundreds of soldiers, goods, and animals for zoos, traveled to Southeast Asia, Persia, southern Arabia, and east Africa to show off Chinese power. Their prowess exceeded that of current Europeans at the time, and had these expeditions not ended, the world economy may be different from today.
:
p. 339
In 1433, the Chinese government decided that the cost of a navy was an unnecessary expense. The Chinese navy was slowly dismantled and focus on interior reform and military defense began. It was China's longstanding priority that they protect themselves from nomads and they have accordingly returned to it. The growing limits on the Chinese navy would leave them vulnerable to foreign invasion by sea later on.
As was inevitable, Westerners arrived on the Chinese east coast, primarily
Jesuit
missionaries which reached the mainland in 1582. They attempted to
convert the Chinese people to Christianity
by first converting the top of the social hierarchy and allowing the lower classes to subsequently convert. To further gain support, many Jesuits adopted Chinese dress, customs, and language.
:
p. 508
Some Chinese scholars were interested in certain Western teachings and especially in Western technology. By the 1580s, Jesuit scholars like
Matteo Ricci
and
Adam Schall
amazed the Chinese elite with technological advances such as European clocks, improved calendars and cannons, and the accurate prediction of eclipses.
:
p. 508
Although some the scholar-gentry converted, many were suspicious of the Westerners whom they called "barbarians" and even resented them for the embarrassment they received at the hand of Western correction. Nevertheless, a small group of Jesuit scholars remained at the court to impress the emperor and his advisors.
Decline
[
edit
]
Near the end of the 1500s, the extremely centralized government that gave so much power to the emperor had begun to fail as more incompetent rulers took the mantle. Along with these weak rulers came increasingly corrupt officials who took advantage of the decline. Once more the public projects fell into disrepair due to neglect by the bureaucracy and resulted in floods, drought, and famine that rocked the peasantry. The famine soon became so terrible that some peasants resorted to selling their children to slavery to save them from starvation, or to eating bark, the feces of geese, or
other people
.
:
p. 509
Many landlords abused the situation by building large estates where desperate farmers would work and be exploited. In turn, many of these farmers resorted to flight, banditry, and open rebellion.
All of this corresponded with the usual dynastic decline of China seen before, as well as the growing foreign threats. In the mid-16th century, Japanese and ethnic Chinese pirates began to raid the southern coast, and neither the bureaucracy nor the military were able to stop them.
:
p. 510
The threat of the northern
Manchu people
also grew. The Manchu were an already large state north of China, when in the early 17th century a local leader named
Nurhaci
suddenly united them under the
Eight Banners
?armies that the opposing families were organized into. The Manchus adopted many Chinese customs, specifically taking after their bureaucracy. Nevertheless, the Manchus still remained a Chinese
vassal
. In 1644 Chinese administration became so weak, the 16th and last emperor, the
Chongzhen Emperor
, did not respond to the severity of an ensuing rebellion by local dissenters until the enemy had invaded the
Forbidden City
(his personal estate). He soon hanged himself in the imperial gardens.
:
p. 510
For a brief amount of time, the
Shun dynasty
was claimed, until a loyalist Ming official called support from the Manchus to put down the new dynasty. The Shun dynasty ended within a year and the Manchu were now within the Great Wall. Taking advantage of the situation, the Manchus marched on the Chinese capital of Beijing.
Within two decades
all of China belonged to the Manchu and the
Qing dynasty
was established.
Korea: Joseon dynasty (1392?1897)
[
edit
]
In early-modern Korea, the 500-year-old kingdom,
Goryeo
fell and new dynasty
Joseon
rose in August 5, 1392.
Taejo of Joseon
changed the country's name from
Goryeo
to
Joseon
.
Sejong the Great
created
Hangul
, the modern Korean alphabet, in 1443; likewise the Joseon dynasty saw several improvements in science and technology, like Sun Clocks, Water Clocks, Rain-Measuring systems, Star Maps, and detailed records of Korean small villages. The ninth king,
Seongjong
accomplished the first complete Korean
law code
in 1485. So the culture and people's lives were improved again.
In 1592, Japan under
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
invaded Korea. That war is
Imjin war
. Before that war, Joseon was in a long peace like PAX ROMANA. So Joseon was not ready for the war. Joseon had lost again and again. Japanese army conquered
Seoul
. The whole
Korean peninsula
was in danger. But
Yi Sun-sin
, the most renowned general of Korea, defeated Japanese fleet in southern Korea coast even 13 ships VS 133 ships. This incredible battle is called "
Battle of Myeongnyang
". After that,
Ming dynasty
helped Joseon, and Japan lost the battle. So Toyotomi Hideyoshi's campaign in Korea failed, and the
Tokugawa Shogunate
has later began. Korea was hurt a lot at
Imjin war
. Not long after, Manchurian people invaded Joseon again. It is called
Qing invasion of Joseon
. The first invasion was for sake. Because Qing was at war between Ming, so Ming's alliance with Joseon was threatening. And the second invasion was for Joseon to obey Qing. After that, Qing defeated Ming and took the whole Chinese territories. Joseon also had to obey Qing because Joseon lose the second war against Qing.
After the Qing invasion, the princes of the Joseon dynasty lived their childhood in China. The son of King Injo met
Adam Schall
in Beijing. So he wanted to introduce western technologies to Korean people when he becomes a king. He died before he could take the throne. After then, the alternative prince became the 17th king of the Joseon dynasty,
Hyojong
, trying to revenge for his kingdom and fallen Ming dynasty to Qing. Later kings such as
Yeongjo
and
Jeongjo
tried to improve their people's lives and stop the governors' unreasonable competition. From the 17th century to the 18th century, Joseon sent diplomats and artists to Japan more than 10 times. This group was called 'Tongshinsa'. They were sent to Japan to teach Japan about advanced Korean culture. Japanese people liked to receive poems from Korean nobles. At that time, Korea was more powerful than Japan. But that relationship between Joseon and Japan was reversed after the 19th century. Because Japan became more powerful than Korea and China, either. So Joseon sent diplomats called 'Sooshinsa' to learn Japanese advanced technologies. After king Jeongjo's death, some noble families controlled the whole kingdom in the early 19th century. At the end of that period, Western people invaded Joseon. In 1876, Joseon was set free from Qing so they did not have to obey Qing. But Japanese Empire was happy because Joseon became a perfect independent kingdom. So Japan could intervene in the kingdom more. After this, Joseon traded with the
United States
and sent 'Sooshinsa' to Japan, 'Youngshinsa' to Qing, and 'Bobingsa' to the US and Europe. These groups took many modern things to the Korean peninsula.
Japan: Tokugawa or Edo period (1603?1867)
[
edit
]
In early-modern Japan following the
Sengoku period
of "warring states", central government had been largely reestablished by
Oda Nobunaga
and
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
during the
Azuchi?Momoyama period
. After the
Battle of Sekigahara
in 1600, central authority fell to
Tokugawa Ieyasu
who completed this process and received the title of
sh?gun
in 1603.
Society in the Japanese "
Tokugawa period
" (see
Edo society
), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class
hierarchy
originally established by
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
. The
daimy?s
(feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of
samurai
, with the farmers, artisans, and merchants ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the
Sakoku
policy. Literacy rose in the two centuries of isolation.
[25]
In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions,
daimy?s
and samurai were more or less identical, since
daimy?s
might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this
social stratification
system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the
peasantry
were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.
[26]
India
[
edit
]
In the
Indian subcontinent
, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India in the early 18th century. During emperor
Shah Jahan
and his son
Aurangzeb
's Islamic
sharia
reigns, the empire reached its architectural and economic zenith, and became the world's largest economy,
[27]
worth over 25% of world GDP. In the mid-18th century it was a major
proto-industrializing
region.
[28]
Following major events such as the
Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire
,
Battle of Plassey
,
Battle of Buxar
and the long
Anglo-Mysore Wars
, most of South Asia was colonised and governed by the
British Empire
, thus establishing the
British Raj
.
[29]
The "classic period" ended with the death of
Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb
,
[30]
although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Empire was located in the south west of present-day India and expanded greatly under the rule of the
Peshwas
, the prime ministers of the Maratha empire. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the
Third Battle of Panipat
against
Ahmad shah Durrani king of Afghanistan
which halted imperial expansion and the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states.
British and Dutch colonization
[
edit
]
The European economic and naval powers pushed into Asia, first to do trading, and then to take over major colonies. The Dutch led the way followed by the British. Portugal had arrived first, but was too weak to maintain its small holdings and was largely pushed out, retaining only
Goa
and
Macau
. The British set up a private organization, the
East India Company
, which handled both trade and Imperial control of much of India.
[31]
The
commercial colonization of India
commenced in 1757, after the
Battle of Plassey
, when the
Nawab of Bengal
surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company,
[32]
[
citation not found
]
in 1765, when the company was granted the
diwani
, or the right to collect revenue, in
Bengal
and
Bihar
,
[33]
or in 1772, when the company established a capital in
Calcutta
, appointed its first
Governor-General
,
Warren Hastings
, and became directly involved in governance.
[34]
The
Maratha states
, following the
Anglo-Maratha wars
, eventually lost to the
British East India Company
in 1818 with the
Third Anglo-Maratha War
. The rule lasted until 1858, when, after the
Indian rebellion of 1857
and consequent of the
Government of India Act 1858
, the
British government
assumed the task of directly administering India in the new
British Raj
.
[35]
In 1819
Stamford Raffles
established
Singapore
as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an
Anglo-Dutch treaty
demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.
The
Dutch East India Company
(1800) and
British East India Company
(1858) were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. Only
Thailand
was spared the experience of foreign rule, although, Thailand itself was also greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. Colonial rule had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent.
[36]
Late modern
[
edit
]
Central Asia: The Great Game, Russia vs Great Britain
[
edit
]
The Great Game
was a political and diplomatic confrontation between Great Britain and Russia over
Afghanistan
and neighbouring territories in
Central
and
South Asia
. It lasted from 1828 to 1907. There was no war, but there were many threats. Russia was fearful of British commercial and military inroads into
Central Asia
, and Britain was fearful of Russia threatening its largest and most important possession, India. This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires. Britain made it a high priority to protect all the approaches to India, and the "great game" is primarily how the British did this in terms of a possible Russian threat. Historians with access to the archives have concluded that Russia had no plans involving India, as the Russians repeatedly stated.
[37]
The Great Game began in 1838 when Britain decided to gain control over the
Emirate of Afghanistan
and make it a protectorate, and to use the
Ottoman Empire
, the
Persian Empire
, the
Khanate of Khiva
, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires. This would protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean. Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone, and the final result was diving up Afghanistan with a neutral zone in the middle between Russian areas in the north and British in the South. Important episodes included the failed
First Anglo-Afghan War
of 1838, the
First Anglo-Sikh War
of 1845, the
Second Anglo-Sikh War
of 1848, the
Second Anglo-Afghan War
of 1878, and the annexation of
Kokand
by Russia.
[38]
The 1901 novel
Kim
by
Rudyard Kipling
made the term popular and introduced the new implication of great power rivalry. It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the
Soviet?Afghan War
.
[39]
Qing China
[
edit
]
By 1644, the northern
Manchu people
had conquered
Ming dynasty
and established a foreign dynasty?the
Qing dynasty
?once more. The Manchu Qing emperors, especially Confucian scholar
Kangxi
, remained largely conservative?retaining the bureaucracy and the scholars within it, as well as the Confucian ideals present in Chinese society. However, changes in the economy and new attempts at resolving certain issues occurred too. These included increased trade with Western countries that brought large amounts of silver into the Chinese economy in exchange for tea,
porcelain
, and silk textiles. This allowed for a new merchant-class, the
compradors
, to develop. In addition, repairs were done on existing
dikes
, canals, roadways, and
irrigation
works. This, combined with the lowering of taxes and government-assigned labor, was supposed to calm peasant unrest. However, the Qing failed to control the growing landlord class which had begun to exploit the peasantry and abuse their position.
By the late 18th century, both internal and external issues began to arise in Qing China's politics, society, and economy. The exam system with which scholars were assigned into the bureaucracy became increasingly corrupt; bribes and other forms of cheating allowed for inexperienced and inept scholars to enter the bureaucracy and this eventually caused rampant neglect of the peasantry, military, and the previously mentioned infrastructure projects. Poverty and banditry steadily rose, especially in rural areas, and mass migrations looking for work throughout China occurred. The perpetually conservative government refused to make reforms that could resolve these issues.
Opium War
[
edit
]
China saw its status reduced by what it perceived as parasitic trade with Westerners. Originally, European traders were at a disadvantage because the Chinese cared little for their goods, while European demand for Chinese commodities such as tea and porcelain only grew. In order to tip the trade imbalance in their favor, British merchants began to sell Indian
opium
to the Chinese. Not only did this sap Chinese bullion reserves, it also led to widespread drug addiction amongst the
bureaucracy
and society in general. A ban was placed on opium as early as 1729 by the
Yongzheng Emperor
, but little was done to enforce it. By the early 19th century, under the new
Daoguang Emperor
, the government began serious efforts to eradicate opium from Chinese society. Leading this endeavour were respected scholar-officials including
Imperial Commissioner
Lin Zexu
.
After Lin
destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium
in the summer of 1839, Europeans demanded compensation for what they saw as unwarranted Chinese interference in their affairs. When it was not paid, the British declared war later the same year, starting what became known as the
First Opium War
. The outdated Chinese
junks
were no match for the advanced British gunboats, and soon the
Yangzi River
region came under threat of British bombardment and invasion. The emperor had no choice but to sue for peace, resulting in the exile of Lin and the making of the
Treaty of Nanking
, which ceded the British control of
Hong Kong
and opened up trade and diplomacy with other European countries, including Germany, France, and the USA.
Manchuria
[
edit
]
Manchuria/Northeast China came under influence of Russia with the building of the
Chinese Eastern Railway
through
Harbin
to
Vladivostok
.
[40]
The
Empire of Japan
replaced Russian influence in the region as a result of the
Russo-Japanese War
in 1904?1905, and Japan laid the
South Manchurian Railway
in 1906 to
Port Arthur
. During the
Warlord Era
in China,
Zhang Zuolin
established himself in Northeast China, but was murdered by the Japanese for being too independent. The former Chinese emperor,
Puyi
, was then placed on the throne to lead a Japanese puppet state of
Manchukuo
.
[41]
In August 1945, the Soviet Union invaded the region. From 1945 to 1948, Northeast China was a base area for Mao Zedong's
People's Liberation Army
in the
Chinese Civil War
. With the encouragement of the Kremlin, the area was used as a staging ground during the Civil War for the
Chinese Communists
, who were victorious in 1949 and have controlled ever since.
[42]
Joseon
[
edit
]
When it became the 19th century, the king of
Joseon
was powerless. Because the noble family of the king's wife got the power and ruled the country by their way. The 26th king of Joseon dynasty,
Gojong
's father,
Heungseon Daewongun
wanted the king be powerful again. Even he wasn't the king. As the father of young king, he destroyed noble families and corrupt organizations. So the royal family got the power again. But he wanted to rebuild
Gyeongbokgung
palace in order to show the royal power to people. So he was criticized by people because he spent enormous money and
inflation
occurred because of that. So his son, the real king
Gojong
got power.
Korean Empire
[
edit
]
By the
Treaty of Shimonoseki
article 1 of the first Sino-Japanese war, Korea was independented from China. The 26th king of
Joseon
, Gojong changed the nation's name to
Daehan Jeguk
(
Korean Empire
). And he also promoted himself as an emperor. The new empire accepted more western technology and strengthened military power. And
Korean Empire
was going to become a neutral nation. Unfortunately, in the
Russo-Japanese war
, Japan ignored this, and eventually Japan won against
Russian Empire
, and started to invade Korea. Japan first stole the right of diplomacy from Korean Empire illegally. But every western country ignored this invasion because they knew Japan became a strong country as they defeated Russian Empire. So emperor Gojong sent diplomats to a Dutch city known as
The Hague
to let everyone know that Japan stole the Empire's right illegally. But it was failed. Because the diplomats couldn't go into the conference room. Japan kicked Gojong off on the grounds that this reason. 3 years after, In 1910, Korean Empire became a part of Empire of Japan. It was the first time ever after invasion of Han dynasty in 108 BC.
Contemporary
[
edit
]
The European powers had control of other parts of Asia by the early 20th century, such as
British India
,
French Indochina
,
Spanish East Indies
, and Portuguese
Macau
and
Goa
. The
Great Game
between Russia and Britain was the struggle for power in the Central Asian region in the nineteenth century. The
Trans-Siberian Railway
, crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Parts of Asia remained free from European control, although not influence, such as
Persia
,
Thailand
and most of China. In the twentieth century,
Imperial Japan
expanded into China and Southeast Asia during
World War II
. After the war, many Asian countries became independent from European powers. During the
Cold War
, the northern parts of Asia were communist controlled with the
Soviet Union
and People's Republic of China, while western allies formed pacts such as
CENTO
and
SEATO
. Conflicts such as the
Korean War
,
Vietnam War
and
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
were fought between communists and anti-communists. In the decades after the Second World War, a massive restructuring plan drove Japan to become the world's second-largest economy, a phenomenon known as the
Japanese post-war economic miracle
. The
Arab?Israeli conflict
has dominated much of the recent history of the Middle East. After the
Soviet Union
's collapse in 1991, there were many new independent nations in Central Asia.
China
[
edit
]
Prior to
World War II
, China faced a civil war between
Mao Zedong
's Communist party and
Chiang Kai-shek
's nationalist party; the nationalists appeared to be in the lead. However, once the
Japanese invaded
in 1937, the two parties were forced to form a temporary cease-fire in order to defend China. The nationalists faced many military failures that caused them to lose territory and subsequently, respect from the Chinese masses. In contrast, the communists' use of guerilla warfare (led by
Lin Biao
) proved effective against the Japanese's conventional methods and put the Communist Party on top by 1945. They also gained popularity for the reforms they were already applying in controlled areas, including land redistribution, education reforms, and widespread health care. For the next four years, the nationalists would be forced to retreat to the small island east of Fujian province, known as
Taiwan
(formerly known as Formosa), where they remain today. In mainland China,
People's Republic of China
was established by the Communist Party, with
Mao Zedong
as its
state chairman
.
The communist government in China was defined by the party
cadres
. These hard-line officers controlled the
People's Liberation Army
, which itself controlled large amounts of the bureaucracy. This system was further controlled by the
Central Committee
, which additionally supported the state chairman who was considered the head of the government. The People's Republic's foreign policies included the repressing of
secession
attempts in Mongolia and Tibet and supporting of
North Korea
and
North Vietnam
in the
Korean War
and
Vietnam War
, respectively. By 1960 China and the USSR became adversaries, battling worldwide for control of local communist movements.
Today China plays important roles in world economics and politics. China today is the world's second largest economy and the second fastest growing economy.
Indian Subcontinent
[
edit
]
From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually annexed by the
East India Company
, a chartered company acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British government. Dissatisfaction with
company rule in India
led to the
Indian Rebellion of 1857
, which rocked parts of north and central India, and led to the dissolution of the company. India was afterwards ruled directly by the
British Crown
, in the
British Raj
. After
World War I
, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the
Indian National Congress
, led by
Mahatma Gandhi
, and noted for
nonviolence
. Later, the
All-India Muslim League
would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority
nation state
.
In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was
partitioned
into the
Union of India
and
Dominion of Pakistan
. In particular, the partition of
Punjab
and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.
[43]
[44]
[45]
Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).
[44]
In 1971,
Bangladesh
, formerly
East Pakistan
and
East Bengal
, seceded from Pakistan
[46]
through an
armed conflict
sparked by the rise of the
Bengali nationalist
and
self-determination
movement.
Korea
[
edit
]
During the period when the
Korean War
occurred, Korea divided into North and South.
Syngman Rhee
became the first president of
South Korea
, and
Kim Il Sung
became the supreme leader of
North Korea
. After the war, the president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee tries to become a dictator. So the
April Revolution
occurred, eventually
Syngman Rhee
was exiled from his country.
In 1963,
Park Chung Hee
was empowered with a military coup d'etat. He dispatched
Republic of Korea Army
to
Vietnam War
. And during this age, the economy of
South Korea
outran that of
North Korea
.
Although
Park Chung Hee
improved the nation's economy, he was a dictator, so people didn't like him. Eventually, he was murdered by
Kim Jae-gyu
. In 1979,
Chun Doo-hwan
was empowered by another coup d’etat by military. He oppressed the resistances in the city of
Gwangju
. That event is called 'Gwangju Uprising'. Despite the Gwangju Uprising,
Chun Doo-hwan
became the president. But the people resisted again in 1987. This movement is called '
June Struggle
'. As a result of
Gwangju Uprising
and
June Struggle
, South Korea finally became a democratic republic in 1987.
Roh Tae-woo
(1988?93),
Kim Young-sam
(1993?98),
Kim Dae-jung
(1998?2003),
Roh Moo-hyun
(2003?2008),
Lee Myung-bak
(2008?2013),
Park Geun-hye
(2013?2017),
Moon Jae-in
(2017?) were elected as a president in order after 1987. In 1960,
North Korea
was far wealthier than
South Korea
. But in 1970, South Korea begins to outrun the North Korean economy. In 2018, South Korea is ranked #10 in world
GDP
ranking.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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*
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a
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Symonds, Richard
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At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.
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On the same dates [4 and 5 March 1947], Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)
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