US-based international satellite and cable TV channel
Television channel
History
(stylized in
all caps
), formerly and commonly known as the
History Channel
, is an American
pay television
network
and
flagship channel
owned by
A&E Networks
, a
joint venture
between
Hearst Communications
and
The Walt Disney Company
's General Entertainment Content Division.
The network was originally focused on history-based, social/science documentaries as well as the news. During the late 2000s, the History Channel pivoted into
reality television
programming. In addition to this change in format, the network has been criticized by many scientists, historians, and skeptics for broadcasting
pseudo-documentaries
and
pseudoscientific
, unsubstantiated, sensational investigative programming.
As of November 2023
[update]
, History is available to approximately 63,000,000 pay television households in the United States-down from its 2011 peak of 99,000,000 households.
[2]
International localized versions of the History Channel are available, in various forms, in India, Canada, Europe, Australia, the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Latin America.
History
[
edit
]
20th century
[
edit
]
The company indicated that plans for a history channel were in the works in 1993, it purchased the Lou Reda Productions documentary library and long-term rights for the Hearst Entertainment documentaries archive. The History Channel was launched on January 1, 1995, with its UK counterpart, a partnership with
British Sky Broadcasting
, following on November 1, 1995.
[3]
Its original format focused entirely on historical series and
specials
.
During the 1990s, the History Channel was jokingly referred to as "The
Hitler
Channel" for its extensive coverage of
World War II
.
[4]
Since then, much of its military-themed programming has been shifted to its sister network
Military History
.
A&E Networks considered the History Channel to be the driver in international expansion due to a lack of international rights to A&E international co-productions. As expected, the History Channel led A&E's overseas expansion in Brazil with TVA (April 1996), the Nordic and Baltic regions with Modern Times Group (1997), and in Canada (1997).
[3]
The History Channel expanded in 1998 into tours of US landmarks with Mayflower Tours having an affiliated website (historytravel.com),
History Channel Traveler
, and a planned quarterly magazine. While in October, the History Channel and
MSG Network
teamed up to produce several short-form sports history programs. A&E launched
History International
as a spin-off from the History Channel in November 1998.
[3]
21st century
[
edit
]
On February 16, 2008, a new logo was launched on the U.S. network as part of a rebranding effort. While the trademark "H" was kept, the triangle shape on the left acts as a play button for animation and flyouts during commercials and shows. On March 20, 2008, as part of that same rebranding effort, the History Channel dropped "The" and "Channel" from its name to become simply "History".
[5]
In 2012, half of A&E would be purchased by
The Walt Disney Company
and the other half by
Hearst Communications
, also putting History under their joint ownership.
[6]
In 2015, the channel would undergo another rebranding, this time by Joseph Kiely. The slogan of this rebranding was "Make Your Mark". The logo was slightly changed, but retained the golden letter 'H' that had become synonymous with the channel.
[7]
The "History 100" documentary initiative was announced in March 2018 that would produce 100 documentaries covering major events and notable figures from last 100 years.
[8]
On December 7, 2021, History received a major rebrand for the first time since February 16, 2008. The logo still kept the golden letter 'H' that had been used since its launch in 1995.
Programming
[
edit
]
Programming on the History Channel has covered a wide range of
historical periods
and topics, while similar themed topics are often organized into themed weeks or daily marathons. Subjects include
warfare
,
inventions
,
aviation
,
mechanical
and
civil engineering
,
technology
,
science
,
nature
,
artists
,
composers
,
authors
,
mythical creatures
,
monsters
,
unidentified flying objects
,
conspiracy theories
,
aliens
,
religious beliefs
,
disaster
scenarios,
apocalyptic
"after man" scenarios,
survival
scenarios,
alternate history
,
dinosaurs
,
doomsday
,
organized crime
,
secret societies
, and
2012
superstitions. Occasionally, some programs compare contemporary culture and technology with that of the past.
[9]
The channel's programming would expand into scripted dramas with the premiere
Vikings
in 2013.
[10]
Criticism and evaluations
[
edit
]
Initially, the network received mixed reviews. In an article from the American Historical Association released about a year into the channel's lifespan, the channel's historical consultant Libby Haight O' Connell noted that professional historians have been enlisted to work on the channel's programs and many letters have come in from viewers both pointing out historical errors and opening up discussion with the channel creators about the events portrayed in the channel's programs.
[11]
However, in recent years the network has been criticized for having a bias towards
US history
. Another former sister network,
History International
, more extensively covered history outside the US until 2011, when it was re-branded as
H2
and started broadcasting more material that had to do with US history.
[12]
Stanley Kutner criticized the network for the series
The Men Who Killed Kennedy
in 2003. Kutner was one of three historians commissioned to review the documentary, which the channel disavowed and never aired again.
[13]
Programs such as
Modern Marvels
have been praised for their presentation of detailed information in an entertaining format.
[14]
Some of the network's series, including
Ice Road Truckers
,
Ax Men
, and
Pawn Stars
, garnered increased viewership ratings in the United States, while receiving criticism over the series'
nonhistorical nature
. US Senator
Chuck Grassley
is a critic of the channel and its lack of historical or educational programming, showing particular disdain for the latter two programs.
[15]
Professor Jeremy Stoddard, in his article published in 2010, raised the concern that the productions of the network presented value-laden perspectives which may mislead audiences, a phenomenon he termed "the History Channel effect".
[16]
Stoddard also claimed that the History Channel did not contribute to this phenomenon alone, but rather, it was caused by the misperception that
documentaries
are "objective sources of history".
[16]
In 2011,
Forbes
staffer Alex Knapp wrote, "The History Channel shouldn't run stuff like this 'ancient astronaut' nonsense."
[17]
Forbes
contributor Brad Lockwood criticized the channel's addition of "programs devoted to monsters, aliens, and conspiracies", attributing a perceived intent of boosting ratings to the network's decision to focus on
pseudoarchaeology
instead of documented facts.
[18]
Knapp refers readers to the
Bad Archaeology
website's founder Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews who comments, "I find it incredible and frightening that a worldwide distributed television channel ...can broadcast such rubbish as
Ancient Aliens
."
[17]
Archaeologist
Kenneth Feder
, author of
Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology
,
[19]
called the channel's hosting the
ancient astronaut
theory "execrable bullshit".
[20]
In his book
2012: It's Not the End of the World
, Peter Lemesurier describes the channel's
Nostradamus
series, in which he was invited to participate, as "largely fiction" and "lurid nonsense".
[21]
He also lists numerous allusions made in its films to the alleged Mayan "end of the world" and the "rare" galactic alignment that was supposed by
John Major Jenkins
to accompany it in
2012
,
[21]
while Jenkins himself has described
Decoding the Past
as "45 minutes of unabashed doomsday hype and the worst kind of inane
sensationalism
."
[22]
In December 2011,
Politifact
gave the History Channel's claim that the
United States Congress
stayed open on
Christmas Day
for most of its first 67 years of existence a "pants on fire" rating, the lowest of its ratings, noting that its own research showed that both the
Senate
and the
House
had only convened once in those 67 years on a Christmas Day. It noted that because one-in-seven Christmases falls on a Sunday (when Congress does not meet to allow members to attend church), the claim is "ridiculous".
[23]
The claim had first been broadcast on the History Channel program
Christmas Unwrapped ? The History of Christmas
before being subsequently picked up by the
American Civil Liberties Union
's website on the "Origins of Christmas" and by the
Comedy Central
series
The Daily Show
.
[23]
Daily Show
host
Jon Stewart
responded the next day by stating it was their fault for trusting the History Channel and satirized a clip from the History Channel about UFOs and Nazis by stating, "The next thing you know we'll all find out the Nazis did not employ alien technology in their quest for world domination."
[24]
[25]
The History Channel was also singled out in a post for
Smithsonian
magazine. Science writer Riley Black took issue with the show
Ancient Aliens
for postulating the "idea that aliens caused the
extinction of non-avian dinosaurs
."
[26]
The online magazine
Cracked
also lampooned the channel for its strange definition of history.
Cracked
singled out the programs
UFO Hunters
and
Ancient Aliens
as being the very definition of non-history by presenting
pseudoscience
and
pseudohistory
.
[27]
In 2015, skeptic
Brian Dunning
listed it at #2 on a "Top 10 Worst Anti-Science Websites" list.
[28]
Amelia Earhart documentary controversy
[
edit
]
In 2017, a History Channel documentary,
Amelia Earhart: The Lost Evidence
, proposed that a photograph in the National Archives of
Jaluit Atoll
in the
Marshall Islands
was actually a picture of a captured
Amelia Earhart
and
Fred Noonan
. The picture showed a Caucasian male on a dock who appeared to look like Noonan and a woman sitting on the dock, but facing away from the camera, who was judged to have a physique and haircut resembling Earhart's. The documentary theorizes that the photo was taken after Earhart and Noonan crashed at
Mili Atoll
. The documentary also said that physical evidence recovered from Mili matches pieces that could have fallen off an Electra during a crash or subsequent overland move to a barge.
The Lost Evidence
proposed that a Japanese ship seen in the photograph was the
Koshu Maru
, a Japanese military ship.
The Lost Evidence
was soon discredited after Japanese blogger Kota Yamano found the original source of the photograph in the archives in the
National Diet Library
Digital Collection.
[29]
The original source of the photo was a Japanese travel guide published in October 1935, implying that the photograph was taken in 1935 or before, thus it would be unrelated to Earhart and Noonan's 1937 disappearance. Additionally, the researcher who discovered the photo also identified the ship in the right of the photo as another ship called
Koshu
seized by
Allied
Japanese forces in World War I and not the
Koshu Maru
.
[30]
Researcher
Ben Radford
performed a detailed analysis of the mistakes made by
The History Channel
in building their documentary on bad photographic evidence. In his
Skeptical Inquirer
article "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Emmys: An Amelia Earhart Special (Non) Mystery Post-Mortem," critiquing the network's lack of professionalism, Radford said: "Given that the photograph's provenance was established and thus the key premise of the show discredited in about half an hour of Google searching, it will be interesting to see what world class expertise... the History Channel will bring to their reinvestigation of Earhart's disappearance."
[31]
On episode 82 of his
Squaring the Strange
podcast, released January 4, 2019, Radford reminded listeners that in excess of 18 months had passed without an apology or explanation from the History Channel as to "how their research went so horribly wrong."
[32]
[33]
Military History Channel
[
edit
]
American pay television channel
Television channel
Military History
|
Country
| United States
|
---|
Broadcast area
| Nationwide
International
|
---|
Headquarters
| New York, New York
|
---|
|
Language(s)
| English
|
---|
Picture format
| 480i
(
SDTV
)
(most current-day programming presented in widescreen
letterbox
)
|
---|
|
Owner
| A&E Networks
|
---|
Sister channels
| - History
- History en Espanol
|
---|
|
Launched
| January 5, 2005
; 19 years ago
(
2005-01-05
)
|
---|
Former names
| Military History Channel (2005?08)
|
---|
|
|
|
Service(s)
| Hulu + Live TV
,
Frndly TV
,
Philo
|
---|
|
Military History
is a niche spin-off network of History that features reruns of programs about the
history of the military
and significant combat events. The channel's main competitor is Warner Bros. Discovery's
American Heroes Channel
, formerly the Military Channel.
[34]
History
[
edit
]
Military History
was launched on January 5, 2005 after demand for more military history programs. Beginning on March 27, 2004, a military-history programming block started on now defunct network
History International
as a prologue. The launch was an open preview, or soft launch, as no cable operators were signed up. Dan Davids, president of the History Channel USA, planned to push for digital basic level cable carriage. Its initial programming library drew from A&E and History's programs. The channel's initial prime time shows were under an umbrella banner of “Battle History”, which consisted of five documentary miniseries featuring each of the US military services. In the second quarter of 2005, the channel had its hard launch.
[34]
Like its parent channel, the channel dropped the word "Channel" from its name on March 20, 2008.
Carriage is very limited and often offered in add-on cable/satellite/streaming packages.
Programming
[
edit
]
Military History features programs that focus on historical battles and wars, as well as programs that profile key individuals such as generals, soldiers and spies. It also airs documentaries and series that provide insight into how these wars were fought and the lives of those who served in them.
Its programming library draws from A&E and History's program libraries
[34]
with an emphasis on
World War II
.
Other media
[
edit
]
- The Unknown Hitler
DVD collection,
[35]
including
Hitler and the Occult
- Dogfight: Season 1
DVD set
- The Great Depression
DVD collection
- The Making of Trump
2015 DVD
[36]
Video serials
[
edit
]
- Legend of the Superstition Mountains
six episodes in 2015
- History Legends of War: Patton
- The History Channel: Lost Worlds
- The History Channel: Battle of Britain 1940
- The History Channel: Crusades ? Quest for Power
- The History Channel: Alamo ? Fight for Independence
- The History Channel: Civil War ? Great Battles
- The History Channel: Digging for Truth
- The History Channel: Great Battles Medieval
- The History Channel: Civil War The Battle of Bull Run Take Command: 1861
- The History Channel: American Civil War Take Command: 2nd Manassas
Video games
[
edit
]
International
[
edit
]
North America
[
edit
]
Canada
[
edit
]
History Television launched in 1997 and was not initially related to its then similarly named American counterpart. During History Television's first several years of operation, despite sharing a similar programming focus, it rarely, if ever, acquired programming from the American channel. The phrase "Not available in Canada" was used heavily during The History Channel's early years in promotional ads on American channels that were imported to Canadian pay television providers, particularly A&E.
[46]
Beginning in the late 2000s, several History (US) shows were acquired for Canadian broadcast on History Television. On May 30, 2012, then-parent company
Shaw Media
announced that it would rebrand History Channel as a Canadian version of the US History channel in the fall of 2012, through a licensing agreement with A+E Networks.
[47]
History Television would be relaunched on August 12, 2012, with another Shaw-owned specialty channel relaunched as a
Canadian version of H2
soon after.
On October 21, 2014,
Corus Entertainment
reached an agreement to acquire
Canadian French
-language rights to History programming for its own channel,
Historia
. On March 9, 2015, the network was relaunched under History's logo and branding, although the network still carries the Historia name.
[48]
Historia was previously owned as a joint venture between Shaw and
Astral Media
, which made it a sister to History; Corus purchased the network in 2013.
[49]
On April 1, 2016, Corus Entertainment merged with Shaw Media, and as a result, now holds the
Canadian English
and French-language rights to History programming.
[
citation needed
]
Europe
[
edit
]
UK and Ireland
[
edit
]
The British version launched in November 1995, and arrived in Ireland on November 1, 1999. The UK channel is a joint venture with
Sky UK
and was renamed Sky History on May 27, 2020, incorporating content from
Sky Documentaries
and
Sky Nature
.
Germany
[
edit
]
The German version launched on November 14, 2004, and is operated by The History Channel Germany GmbH & Co. KG, a joint venture between A+E Networks and
NBC Universal Global Networks Germany
.
Italy
[
edit
]
The Italian version was launched on July 31, 2003, as a joint venture of A&E Networks and
Fox International Channels Italy
; then it became a sole venture of A&E Networks in 2012.
Spain and Portugal
[
edit
]
The History Channel is available in Spain and Portugal though cable, satellite, and IPTV platforms, as well as streaming media under the brand Canal de Historia. The History Channel Iberia is a joint venture between A+E Networks and
AMC Networks International Iberia
.
Benelux
[
edit
]
The Dutch version launched on May 1, 2007.
[50]
This version is distributed by A&E Networks Benelux. In January 2008, History HD was launched in the Netherlands.
[51]
It is available on cable providers
Telenet
and
Ziggo
. It is also available on the IPTV service
KPN
.
Poland
[
edit
]
A Polish version was launched on April 9, 2008. It is available on cable providers Aster, Dialog, Toya, and
UPC Polska
, and also through satellite television (with its HD version carried on the
n
platform since June 1, 2012) and an SD version on
Cyfra+
(since November 2, 2009).
Scandinavia
[
edit
]
A Scandinavian version was first launched in September 1997, broadcasting for three and later four hours a day on the analogue
Viasat
platform. Initially time-sharing with TV1000 Cinema, it was later moved to the Swedish
TV8
channel and continued broadcasting there until November 2004. When History channel announced their own 24-hour pan-European channel, Viasat launched its own history-oriented channel,
Viasat History
, in the Nordic region, but with no original programming. On February 1, 2007, the History Channel returned to Sweden and also Denmark, Norway, Finland when the pan-European version was launched as a standalone channel on the
Canal Digital
satellite platform and later through cable operator Com hem. The History Channel launched on February 1, 2007, on the Canal Digital DTH satellite package for viewers in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland. The channel is being launched by The History Channel UK, A&E's joint venture with BSkyB. Although it broadcasts in English with local subtitles, the channel is scheduled separately from the UK version.
Asia
[
edit
]
India
[
edit
]
The History Channel started its operations in
India
in late 2003 with
21st Century Fox
's
STAR TV
as its sales partner, managed by
National Geographic
until November 21, 2008.
[52]
The History Channel India
closed down on November 21, 2008. In 2011, History was granted permission to relaunch services in India. A joint venture of A&E Networks and TV18 relaunched
History TV18
in India in eight languages in 2014.
[53]
Southeast Asia
[
edit
]
A joint venture of AETN and
Astro All Asia Networks
launched
the History Channel
in
Singapore
,
Hong Kong
,
Thailand
, the
Philippines
,
Malaysia
,
Indonesia
,
Vietnam
, and
Brunei
in the second and third quarters of 2007, and in
Taiwan
and
China
by the end of the year.
[54]
Some other Asian countries, such as
Kuwait
,
Israel
, and
Japan
, have their own versions of the network. On September 1, 2008, History Channel Asia was officially launched in Singapore and Hong Kong followed by the Philippines.
[55]
[56]
[57]
South Korea
[
edit
]
The South Korean version of History Channel was launched on September 22, 2017, replacing the Southeast version that was previously transmitted. After the launch, A+E networks Korea launched an original series program called History in the Bottle (말술클럽).
Latin America
[
edit
]
The Latin American version was launched in 2001. It is owned by
A&E
and controlled in the region by
Ole Distribution
. It airs US programming, translated to
Spanish
or
Portuguese
or in English with Spanish or Portuguese subtitles. Also, it develops some Latin American programming in Spanish.
Oceania
[
edit
]
Australia and New Zealand
[
edit
]
The channel is operated by
Foxtel Networks
, and the programming and name of the channel is licensed to them by
A&E Networks
.
Africa
[
edit
]
South Africa
[
edit
]
The History Channel was launched on December 1, 2003, as part of the
DStv
satellite TV package provided by MultiChoice.
[58]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"I don't have a TV package. Can I subscribe directly to HISTORY? ? HISTORY"
.
Archived
from the original on December 4, 2023
. Retrieved
December 14,
2023
.
- ^
"U.S. cable network households (universe), 1990 ? 2023"
.
wrestlenomics.com
. May 14, 2024.
Archived
from the original on December 31, 2023
. Retrieved
July 28,
2019
.
- ^
a
b
c
"A & E Television Networks History".
International Directory of Company Histories, Vol. 32
. St. James Press. 2000.
Archived
from the original on October 24, 2013
. Retrieved
December 4,
2013
– via Funding Universe.com.
- ^
Schone, Mark (May 8, 1997).
"Media Circus: All Hitler all the time"
.
Salon
.
Archived
from the original on August 1, 2020
. Retrieved
May 27,
2020
.
- ^
International Herald Tribune
Television's The History Channel Drops 'The' and 'Channel' from Its Name, Keeps History
Archived
August 4, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine
March 20, 2008
- ^
Lakritz, Talia.
"14 companies you didn't realize Disney owns"
.
Business Insider
.
Archived
from the original on February 16, 2024
. Retrieved
February 17,
2024
.
- ^
"History Channel global rebrand & manifesto"
.
KIELY DESIGN
.
Archived
from the original on February 17, 2024
. Retrieved
April 25,
2024
.
- ^
Littleton, Cynthia (March 15, 2018).
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.
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.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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- ^
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Television Histories: Shaping Collective Memory in the Media Age
. University Press of Kentucky; 2001.
ISBN
0-8131-7111-3
. pp. 261 ff.
- ^
"VIKINGS Tops The Ratings With 8.3 Million Viewers"
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on March 28, 2013
. Retrieved
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2015
.
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"The History Channel and History Education | Perspectives on History | AHA"
.
www.historians.org
.
Archived
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. Retrieved
April 25,
2024
.
- ^
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. Channel4.com.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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2007
.
The History Channel: The website of the American cable channel has a bias towards American history, as evidenced by Extreme History with Roger Daltrey
- ^
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Archived
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. Retrieved
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2007
.
The History Channel has made a start in the right direction as it has totally disavowed the program and publicly promised it never will be shown again.
- ^
Weinberg, Scott (May 29, 2007).
"Modern Marvels: Technology"
.
DVD Talk
. Archived from
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on July 29, 2012
. Retrieved
August 4,
2007
.
If you're trying to throw your kids a little education, but in a fast-paced and colorful presentation, these "Modern Marvels" series come pretty highly recommended. Then again, I'm a mid-30s guy and I'm learning tons of new stuff from these programs.
- ^
Malone, Noreen (March 20, 2012).
A brief history of Chuck Grassley's history with the History Channel
Archived
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Wayback Machine
.
New York
magazine. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^
a
b
Stoddard, Jeremy D. (2010).
"The History Channel Effect"
.
Phi Delta Kappan
.
91
(4): 80.
doi
:
10.1177/003172171009100420
.
ISSN
0031-7217
.
S2CID
143989861
.
Archived
from the original on July 5, 2022
. Retrieved
July 5,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
An archaeologist watches the History Channel and questions the part about Ancient Aliens
Archived
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Wayback Machine
,
Forbes
, Alex Knapp, September 19, 2011. Retrieved July 12, 2017.
- ^
Lockwood, Brad.
"High Ratings Aside, Where's the History on History?"
.
Forbes
.
Archived
from the original on October 19, 2017
. Retrieved
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2012
.
- ^
Feder, K. (1990).
Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology
. New York, McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages
ISBN
978-0078116971
- ^
"
Ancient Alien Astronauts: Interview with Ken Feder
Archived
August 31, 2019, at the
Wayback Machine
." Retrieved July 17, 2017.
- ^
a
b
Lemesurier, Peter (July 2011),
2012: It's Not the End of the World
, Derwen Publishing, p. 91,
ISBN
978-1-907084-15-7
,
archived
from the original on June 6, 2024
, retrieved
January 17,
2020
- ^
"How Not to Make a 2012 Documentary"
. July 28, 2006. Archived from
the original
on November 5, 2006
. Retrieved
September 22,
2006
.
- ^
a
b
"Comic Jon Stewart says Congress met most Christmas Days in its early years"
.
Politifact
. December 11, 2011.
Archived
from the original on January 21, 2012
. Retrieved
January 21,
2012
.
- ^
Fung, Katherine (December 13, 2011).
"Jon Stewart Fires Back At Politifact Over War On Christmas"
.
Huffington Post
.
Archived
from the original on June 6, 2024
. Retrieved
January 21,
2012
.
- ^
Stewart, Jon (December 12, 2011).
"War on Christmas - Historical Fact-Checking"
.
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart
.
Comedy Central
.
Archived
from the original on June 6, 2024
. Retrieved
March 24,
2013
.
- ^
Black, Riley (May 11, 2012).
"The Idiocy, Fabrications and Lies of Ancient Aliens"
.
Smithsonian
.
Archived
from the original on May 17, 2021
. Retrieved
May 24,
2021
.
- ^
West, Zach (June 30, 2010).
"The History Channel"
.
Cracked
. Archived from
the original
on November 26, 2020
. Retrieved
March 13,
2016
.
- ^
Dunning, Brian
(December 1, 2015).
"Skeptoid #495: Updated: Top 10 Worst Anti-Science Websites"
.
Skeptoid
. Retrieved
October 23,
2020
.
2. History.com (...promoting flagrant pseudohistory...)
- ^
Greshko, Michael (July 11, 2017).
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External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
U.S. networks
| |
---|
International
networks
(joint venture
partner)
|
- A+E Turkey (
Digiturk
)
- A+E Networks Italy
- AETN
18
Media Pvt. Ltd.
| A+E UK (
Sky
)
| |
---|
A+E Germany
| |
---|
A+E Latin America
(Ole Communications)
| |
---|
A+E Asia
| |
---|
Foxtel
(AU licensee)
| |
---|
Corus
(Canada licensee)
| |
---|
History Channel Iberia
(with
AMC Southern Europe
)
| |
---|
|
---|
|