Hindu texts
or
Hindu scriptures
are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within
Hinduism
. Some of the major
Hindu
texts include the
Vedas
, the
Upanishads
, and the
Itihasa
. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of
Hinduism
,
[1]
[2]
but many list the
Agamas
as Hindu scriptures,
[1]
[2]
[3]
and Dominic Goodall includes
Bhagavata Purana
and
Yajnavalkya Smriti
in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.
[1]
History
[
edit
]
There are two historic classifications of
Hindu
texts:
Shruti
(
Sanskrit
: ??????,
IAST
:
?ruti
) ? that which is heard,
[4]
and
Smriti
(
Sanskrit
: ??????,
IAST
:
Sm?ti
) ? that which is remembered.
[5]
The
Shruti
texts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancient
religious texts
, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (
rishis
). These comprise the central canon of
Hinduism
.
[4]
[6]
It includes the four
Vedas
including its four types of embedded texts ? the
Samhitas
, the
Brahmanas
, the
Aranyakas
and the
Upanishads
.
[7]
Of the
Shrutis
, the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.
[9]
The
Smriti
texts are a specific body of
Hindu
texts attributed to an author,
[7]
as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than
Shruti
in Hinduism.
[5]
The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to
Ved?ngas
, the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), the
Sutras and Shastras
, the texts of
Hindu philosophies
, the
Puranas
, the K?vya or poetical literature, the
Bhasyas
, and numerous
Nibandhas
(digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.
[10]
[11]
Many ancient Hindu texts were composed in
Sanskrit
and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other
Indian languages
and some in non-Indian languages.
[1]
Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.
[12]
[13]
This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.
[12]
[13]
Shruti
[
edit
]
The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.
[14]
The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.
[14]
The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts:
Rig Veda
,
Sama Veda
,
Yajur Veda
, and
Atharva Veda
.
[15]
Each Veda is subcategorized into
Samhitas
,
Brahmanas
,
Aranyakas
, and
Upanishads
.
[15]
Vedas
[
edit
]
Manuscripts of 18th-century Hindu texts in Sanskrit(Devanagari) and Odia.
The four Vedas (
Rig Veda
,
Sama Veda
,
Yajur Veda
, and
Atharva Veda
) are a large body of Hindu texts originating from the
Vedic period
in northern India, the
Rig Veda
being composed
c.
1200 BCE
, and its
Samhita
and
Brahmanas
complete before about 800 BCE.
[16]
Composed in
Vedic Sanskrit
hymns
, the texts constitute the oldest layer of
Sanskrit literature
and the oldest scriptures of
Hinduism
.
[17]
[18]
[19]
Hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation,
[16]
apauru?eya
, which means "not of a man, superhuman"
[20]
and "impersonal, authorless".
[21]
[22]
[23]
The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.
[6]
Vedas are also called
shruti
("what is heard") literature,
[24]
distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called
sm?ti
("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the
Deity
.
[
citation needed
]
In the Hindu Epic the
Mahabharata
, the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation,
Brahma
.
[25]
There are four Vedas: the
Rigveda
, the
Yajurveda
, the
Samaveda
and the
Atharvaveda
.
[26]
[27]
Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types ? the
Samhitas
(mantras and benedictions), the
Aranyakas
(text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the
Brahmanas
(commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the
Upanishads
(text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).
[26]
[28]
[29]
Upanishads
[
edit
]
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.
[note 1]
The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.
[9]
[30]
The Upanishads are commonly referred to as
Ved?nta
, interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the
Veda
" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".
[31]
The concepts of
Brahman
(Ultimate Reality) and
?tman
(Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the
Upanishads
,
[33]
and "Know your ?tman" their thematic focus.
[33]
The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.
[9]
[note 2]
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the
mukhya
(main) or
principal Upanishads
.
[34]
[35]
The ten mukhya Upanishads are:
Isha
,
Kena
,
Katha
,
Prashna
,
Mundaka
,
Mandukya
,
Taittiriya
,
Aitareya
,
Chandogya
, and
Brihadaranyaka.
[36]
The
mukhya
Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the
Brahmanas
and
Aranyakas
and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down
verbally
. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),
down to the
Maurya period
.
Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the
Muktika
canon, composed from about the start of common era through
medieval Hinduism
. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.
Smriti
[
edit
]
Smriti is the classification of literature which includes various scriptures and
Itihasa
s (epics like the
Ramayana
and
Mahabharata
),
Harivamsa
Puranas
,
Agamas
and
Darshanas
. This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of
Hindu philosophy
:
Samkhya
, Yoga,
Nyaya
, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and
Vedanta
.
[42]
[43]
The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. The
Dharma-shastras
(law books), derivatives of the
Dharma-sutras
. Other examples were
bhautikashastra
"physics",
rasayanashastra
"chemistry",
j?vashastra
"biology",
vastushastra
"architectural science",
shilpashastra
"science of sculpture",
arthashastra
"economics" and
n?tishastra
"political science".
[44]
It also includes
Tantras
and
Agama
literature.
[45]
Puranas
[
edit
]
The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.
[46]
The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.
[47]
Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,
[48]
[49]
several of these texts are named after major
Hindu
deities such as
Vishnu
,
Shiva
, and
Devi
.
[50]
[51]
The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,
[52]
and it includes diverse topics such as
cosmogony
,
cosmology
, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.
[47]
[49]
[50]
The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.
[48]
There are 18
Maha Puranas
(Great Puranas):
Agni Purana
,
Bhagavata Purana
,
Bhavishya Purana
,
Brahmanda Purana
,
Brahmavaivarta Purana
,
Garuda Purana
,
Kurma Purana
,
Linga Purana
,
Markandeya Purana
,
Naradiya Purana
,
Padma Purana
,
Shiva Purana
,
Skanda Purana
,
Vamana Purana
,
Varaha Purana
,
Vayu Purana
, and
Vishnu Purana
[46]
and 18
Upa Puranas
(Minor Puranas),
[53]
with over 400,000 verses.
[47]
The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,
[53]
but are considered a
Smriti
.
[54]
These Hindu texts have been influential in the
Hindu culture
, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.
[55]
The
Bhagavata Purana
has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.
[56]
[57]
The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes bhakti (devotion) towards Krishna. The Bhagavata Purana is a key text in Krishna bhakti literature.
[46]
[58]
Mahabharata
[
edit
]
The
Mah?bh?rata
, which translates to "
The Great Indian Tale
", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.
[59]
[60]
The text probably reached its final form by the early
Gupta period
(
c.
4th century CE
).
[61]
[62]
The composition is traditionally attributed to
Vedavyasa
and is made up of over 100,000
shlokas
.
[63]
The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (the
Pandavas
and the
Kauravas
) and the aftermath of the
Kurukshetra War
.
[63]
The Mahabharata also teaches about
dharma
(duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes the
Bhagavad Gita
.
[15]
The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion between
Krishna
and
Arjuna
on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God,
moksha
, and dharma.
[64]
Ramayana
[
edit
]
The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sage
Valmiki
and contains over 24,000 verses.
[65]
The epic covers the life journey of
Rama
, an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wife
Sita
, and brother
Lakshmana
. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted by
Ravana
of
Lanka
. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana,
Hanuman
(a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return to
Ayodhya
, where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.
[15]
Other Hindu texts
[
edit
]
Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:
Field
|
Reviewer
|
Reference
|
Agriculture and food
|
Gyula Wojtilla
|
[66]
|
Architecture
|
P Acharya,
B Dagens
|
[67]
[68]
|
Devotionalism
|
Karen Pechelis
|
[69]
|
Drama, dance and performance arts
|
AB Keith,
Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,
Mohan Khokar
|
[70]
[71]
[72]
|
Education, school system
|
Hartmut Scharfe
|
[73]
|
Epics
|
John Brockington
|
[74]
|
Gnomic and didactic literature
|
Ludwik Sternbach
|
[75]
|
Grammar
|
Hartmut Scharfe
|
[76]
|
Law and jurisprudence
|
J Duncan M Derrett
|
[77]
|
Lexicography
|
Claus Vogel
|
[78]
|
Mathematics and exact sciences
|
Kim Plofker
David Pingree
|
[79]
[80]
|
Medicine
|
MS Valiathan,
Kenneth Zysk
|
[81]
[82]
|
Music
|
Emmie te Nijenhuis,
Lewis Rowell
|
[83]
[84]
|
Mythology
|
Ludo Rocher
|
[85]
|
Philosophy
|
Karl Potter
|
[86]
|
Poetics
|
Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard
|
[87]
|
Gender and Sex
|
Johann Jakob Meyer
|
[88]
|
State craft, politics
|
Patrick Olivelle
|
[89]
|
Tantrism, Agamas
|
Teun Goudriaan
|
[90]
|
Temples, Sculpture
|
Stella Kramrisch
|
[91]
|
Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads)
|
Jan Gonda
|
[92]
|
Historical significance
[
edit
]
The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such as
music
,
dance
,
sculptures
,
architecture
,
astronomy
,
science
,
mathematics
,
medicine
and
wellness
.
Valmiki
's
Ramayana
(500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by
Gandharvas
, dance by
Apsaras
such as
Urvashi
,
Rambha
,
Menaka
,
Tilottama
Panch?psaras
, and by
Ravana
's wives who excelling in
nrityageeta
or "singing and dancing" and
nritavaditra
or "playing musical instruments").
[93]
The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in
Natasutras
, which are mentioned in the text of
Panini
, the sage who wrote the classic on
Sanskrit grammar
, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.
[94]
This performance arts related
Sutra
text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (
IAST
: ?il?lin) and Krishashva (K??a?va), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.
[94]
Richmond et al. estimate the
Natasutras
to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.
[94]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.
Olivelle (1998)
- ^
Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,
ISBN
978-0-520-20778-3
, p. ix?xliii
- ^
a
b
Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press,
ISBN
978-0-7914-7082-4
, pp. 46?52, 76?77
- ^
RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House,
ISBN
978-0-679-41078-2
, pages 1?11 and Preface
- ^
a
b
James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N?Z, Rosen Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-8239-3179-8
, page 645
- ^
a
b
James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N?Z, Rosen Publishing,
ISBN
978-0-8239-3179-8
, pp. 656?657
- ^
a
b
Ramdas Lamb (2002).
Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India
. State University of New York Press. pp. 183?185.
ISBN
978-0-7914-5386-5
.
- ^
a
b
Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press,
ISBN
0-7190-1867-6
, pp. 2?3
- ^
a
b
c
Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press,
ISBN
978-0-226-61847-0
, pp. 2?3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
- ^
Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103?130
- ^
Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press,
ISBN
978-0-8248-2085-5
, pp. 16?18
- ^
a
b
Michael Witzel
, "Vedas and Upani?ads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,
ISBN
1-4051-3251-5
, pp. 68?71
- ^
a
b
William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
978-0-521-44820-8
, pp. 67?77
- ^
a
b
Roger R. Keller, "Hinduism,"
Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions
(Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16?39.
- ^
a
b
c
d
"Hindu Philosophy"
.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
.
- ^
a
b
Gavin D. Flood (1996).
An Introduction to Hinduism
. Cambridge University Press. pp.
35
?39.
ISBN
978-0-521-43878-0
.
- ^
see e.g.
MacDonell 2004
, pp. 29?39;
Sanskrit literature
(2003) in
Philip's Encyclopedia
. Accessed 2007-08-09
- ^
see e.g.
Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957
, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and
Upani?ads
", in:
Flood 2003
, p. 68;
MacDonell 2004
, pp. 29?39;
Sanskrit literature
(2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
- ^
Sanujit Ghose (2011). "
Religious Developments in Ancient India
" in
Ancient History Encyclopedia
.
- ^
Vaman Shivaram Apte,
The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary
, see apauruSeya
- ^
D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, pp. 196?197
- ^
Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press,
ISBN
978-0-19-538496-3
, page 290
- ^
Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of ?a?kara and ??ntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World,
ISBN
978-1-4094-6681-9
, p. 128
- ^
Apte 1965
, p. 887
- ^
Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr???a Dvaip?yana Vy?sa in the Mah?bh?rata
Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85?86
- ^
a
b
Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
978-0-521-43878-0
, pages 35?39
- ^
Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
- ^
A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology,
ISBN
978-0-595-38455-6
, pp. 8?14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,
ISBN
978-0-19-533261-2
, page 285
- ^
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Sa?hit?s and Br?hma?as), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
ISBN
978-3-447-01603-2
- ^
Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press,
ISBN
978-0-7914-1080-6
, p. 39;
Quote
: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin,
ISBN
978-1-59257-846-7
, pp. 208?210
- ^
Max Muller,
The Upanishads
, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
- ^
a
b
PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press,
ISBN
978-0-88706-139-4
, pp. 35?36
- ^
Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press,
ISBN
978-0-231-14485-8
, Chapter 1
- ^
E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads,
ISBN
978-1-58638-021-2
, pp. 298?299
- ^
Piparaiya, Ram K. (2003).
Ten Upanishads of Four Vedas
. Motilal Banarsidass.
- ^
Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,
ISBN
978-0-231-14987-7
, pp. 2?5
- ^
Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN
978-81-208-0779-2
- ^
Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
ISBN
978-3-447-02676-5
- ^
Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and ??kta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
ISBN
978-3-447-02091-6
, pp. 7?14
- ^
a
b
c
"Puranas"
.
UCLA Social Sciences
.
- ^
a
b
c
Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge,
ISBN
978-0-415-17281-3
, pp. 437?439
- ^
a
b
John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press,
ISBN
978-0-7914-1382-1
, pp. 185?204
- ^
a
b
Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press,
ISBN
978-1-57003-449-7
, pp. 139
- ^
a
b
Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
ISBN
978-3-447-02522-5
, pp. 1?5, 12?21
- ^
Nair, Shantha N. (2008).
Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice
. Hindology Books. p. 266.
ISBN
978-81-223-1020-7
.
- ^
Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas,
ISBN
0-877790426
, page 915
- ^
a
b
Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press,
ISBN
978-81-208-3972-4
, pp. xii, 4
- ^
Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge,
ISBN
978-0-415-17281-3
, p. 503
- ^
Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
ISBN
978-3-447-02522-5
, pp. 12?13, 134?156, 203?210
- ^
Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,
ISBN
978-0-520-20778-3
, page xli
- ^
Thompson, Richard L. (2007).
The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe
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Pradyumna: Lover, Magician, and Son of the Avatara
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Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr??i??stra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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PK Acharya (1946),
An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture
, Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6
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Bruno Dagens
(1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography,
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978-81-208-3525-2
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Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press,
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978-0-19-535190-3
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The Sanskrit Drama
, Oxford University Press
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Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass,
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Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers,
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Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL,
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John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL,
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Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subh??ita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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3-447-01722-8
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Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press,
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David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society,
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MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan,
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Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,
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Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature ; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature ; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press,
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Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass,
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Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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JJ Meyer,
Sexual Life in Ancient India
, Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press,
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Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press,
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Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and ??kta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass,
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Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Sa?hit?s and Br?hma?as), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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b
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. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 111?113.
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.
Bibliography
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- Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965).
The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary
. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
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.
- Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003).
The Blackwell companion to Hinduism
. Oxford: Blackwell Publ.
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1-4051-3251-5
.
- King, Richard; ?c?rya, Gau?ap?da (1995),
Early Advaita Ved?nta and Buddhism: the Mah?y?na context of the Gau?ap?d?ya-k?rik?
, SUNY Press,
ISBN
978-0-7914-2513-8
- Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.),
History of Philosophy Eastern and Western
, George Allen & Unwin Ltd
- MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004).
A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary
. Motilal Banarsidass.
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978-81-208-2000-5
.
- Tarla Mehta (1995).
Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India
. Motilal Banarsidass.
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978-81-208-1057-0
.
- Olivelle, Patrick (1998a).
The Early Upanisads
. Oxford University Press.
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978-0-19-512435-4
.
- Olivelle, Patrick (1998),
Upani?ads
, Oxford University Press,
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978-0-19-283576-5
- Radhakrishnan, S.
; Moore, C. A. (1957).
A Source Book in Indian Philosophy
. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
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978-0-691-01958-1
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- Ranade, R. D. (1926),
A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy
, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
- Richmond, Farley P.; Swann, Darius L.; Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1993).
Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance
. Motilal Banarsidass.
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.
- Varghese, Alexander P (2008),
India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World
, vol. 1, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors,
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978-81-269-0903-2
Further reading
[
edit
]
External links
[
edit
]
Manuscripts collections (incomplete)
- A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library
,
Volume 1
, Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.)
- A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library
,
Volume 2
, Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.; for complete 6 set collection see
ISBN
0-85484-049-4
)
- Clay Sanskrit Library
publishes Sanskrit literature with downloadable materials.
- The Sacred Books of the Hindus Information
Online resources: