Former kingdom in ancient Yemen
The
Himyarite Kingdom
[b]
was a
polity
in the southern highlands of
Yemen
, as well as the name of the region which it claimed. Until 110 BCE, it was integrated into the
Qatabanian kingdom
, afterwards being recognized as an independent kingdom. According to classical sources, their capital was the ancient city of
Zafar
, relatively near the modern-day city of
Sana'a
.
[1]
Himyarite power eventually shifted to Sana'a as the population increased in the fifth century. After the establishment of their kingdom, it was ruled by kings from dh?-Rayd?n tribe. The kingdom was named Rayd?n.
[4]
The kingdom conquered neighbouring
Saba'
in c. 25 BCE (for the first time),
Qataban
in c. 200 CE, and
Ha?ramaut
c. 300 CE. Its political fortunes relative to Saba' changed frequently until it finally conquered the
Sabaean Kingdom
around 280.
[5]
Himyar then endured until it finally fell to invaders from the
Kingdom of Aksum
in 530 CE.
[6]
The Himyarites originally worshiped most of the
South-Arabian pantheon
, including
Wadd
,
?Athtar
,
'Amm
and
Almaqah
. Since at least the reign of
Malkikarib Yuhamin
(c. 375?400 CE),
Judaism
was adopted as the
de facto
state religion. The religion may have been adopted to some extent as much as two centuries earlier, but inscriptions to polytheistic deities ceased after this date. It was embraced initially by the upper classes, and possibly a large proportion of the general population over time.
[4]
Native
Christian
kings ruled Himyar in 500 CE until 521?522 CE as well, Christianity itself became the main religion after the Aksumite conquest in 530 CE.
[7]
[8]
[9]
Descendants of the Himyarites, namely the
aristocratic
families of Dhu'l-Kala and Dhu Asbah, played a prominent role in
early Islamic Syria
. They led the South Arabian contingents of the Muslim army during the
conquest of Homs
in 638 and contributed to making
Homs
a center for South Arabian settlement, culture and political power. Their chiefs supported
Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan
against Caliph
Ali
in the
First Muslim Civil War
(656?661). Their influence waned with their defeat at the
Battle of Marj Rahit
against the
Quda'a
confederation and the
Umayyad
caliph
Marwan I
in 684 and practically diminished with the death of their leader at the
Battle of Khazir
in 686. Nonetheless, members of the Dhu'l-Kala and Dhu Asbah played important roles at different times through the remainder of Umayyad rule (661?750) as governors, commanders, scholars, and pietists.
History
The Himyarite Kingdom was a confederation of tribes, several inscriptions and monumental buildings survive of this period which shows evidence of a wealthy, sophisticated, relatively literate society that had a rich variety of local gods and religions. Trade was already well established by the 3rd century AD, with Yemen supplying the Roman Empire with
frankincense
and
myrrh
. Further, the late 1st century AD writer
Pliny the Elder
mentioned that the kingdom was one of "the richest nations in the world". It was a hub of international trade, linking the Mediterranean, the Middle East and India.
[10]
The trade linking East Africa with the Mediterranean world largely consisted of exporting ivory from Africa to be sold in the
Roman Empire
. Ships from ?imyar regularly travelled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a large amount of influence both cultural, religious and political over the trading cities of East Africa whilst the cities of East Africa remained independent. The
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
describes the trading empire of Himyar and its ruler "
Charibael
" (probably Karab'il Watar Yuhan'em
II), who is said to have been on friendly terms with Rome:
"23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to them, called the Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors."
Early period
During this period, the Kingdom of ?imyar conquered the kingdoms of Saba' and Qataban and took
Raydan/Zafar
for its capital instead of
Ma'rib
; therefore, they have been called
Dhu Raydan
(
?? ?????
). In the early 2nd century AD Saba' and Qataban split from the Kingdom of ?imyar; yet in a few decades Qataban was conquered by
Hadhramaut
(conquered in its turn by ?imyar in the 4th century), whereas Saba' was finally conquered by ?imyar in the late 3rd century.
[12]
?af?r's ruins cover scattered over 120 hectare on Mudawwar Mountain 10 km north-north-west of the town of Yarim.
[13]
Early, Empire and Late/Post art periods have been identified.
[14]
Around the same time in the north a Himyar General by the name of Nuh Ifriqis led an expedition to
Barbaria
and took control of eastern ports in modern-day Djibouti.
[15]
Other Himyarite generals went as far as invading Rhapta in modern-day Mozambique.
[16]
By the 4th century, the rich Himyarite export of incense, which had once supplied pagan Rome in its religious offerings, now began to wane with the
Christianization of Rome
, contributing to a collapse in the local economy.
[10]
Jewish monarchy
Conversion
By 300, the Himyarite Kingdom had vanquished other political units (including the
Saba
,
Qataban
, and
Hadrawat
kingdoms) and became the ruling power of southern Arabia, uniting the region for the first time. In the mid- to late-fourth century, Himyar or at least its ruling class had adopted Judaism, having transitioned from a polytheistic practice.
[17]
These events are chronicled by the
Book of the Himyarites
and the fifth-century
Ecclessiastical History
of the
Anomean
Philostorgius
. Such sources implicate the motive for conversion as a wish on the part of the Himyarite rulers to distance themselves from the
Byzantine Empire
which had tried to convert them to Christianity. This also took place several decades after the
Kingdom of Aksum
converted to Christianity in 328. No changes occurred in the people's script, calendar, or language (unlike at Aksum after its conversion).
[7]
The conversion from polytheism and the institutionalization of Judaism as the official religion is credited in these sources to
Malk?karib Yuha’min
(r. c. 375?400). According to traditional Islamic sources, the conversion took place under his son,
Abu Karib
(r. c. 400?445).
[18]
It is in the mid-fourth century that inscriptions suddenly transition from polytheistic invocations to ones mentioning the high god
Rahmanan
, "the Lord of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven and Earth".
[19]
[8]
A Sabaic inscription dating to this time, titled Ja 856 (or Fa 60) describes the replacement of a polytheistic temple dedicated to the god al-Maqah with a
mikr?b
(which might be the equivalent of a synagogue or an original form of organization local to Himyarite Judaism
[20]
). The evidence suggests a sharp break with polytheism, coinciding with the sudden appearance of Jewish and Aramaic words (‘
?lam
/world,
baraka
/bless,
hayman?t
/guarantee,
kan?sat
/meeting hall) and personal names (Y??q/Isaac, Yhwd’/Juda), Yws’f/Joseph).
[18]
Nevertheless, the nature of the Judaism practiced by the rulers is not clear
[21]
and the Jewish nature of the kings rule was not frequently made explicit.
[22]
Conversion of king Abu Karib to Judaism
According to Arabian legends and folklore, king
Abu Karib
(r. 390?420) was the first Jewish convert. His conversion is thought to have followed a military expedition into northern Arabia in an effort to eliminate Byzantine influence, who had sought to expand their influence in the peninsula.
[23]
He reached and seized
Yathrib
(Medina) and there installed his son as governor. Later, he would learn that his son was killed, and so he returned to siege the city, during which the Jewish population fought against him. Abu Karib fell ill during the siege, but two Jewish scholars named Ka'b and As'ad were able to restore him to health. They also convinced him to lift the siege and make peace; afterwards he and his army converted. When he returned home, he brought the scholars back with him into the capital where he was able to convince the population to also convert.
[24]
After his eventual death, the pagan
Dh?-Shanatir
seized the throne as his children he left to rule were all still minors.
[23]
One of Abu Karib's sons (Azqir) serving as a Christian missionary was executed in
Najran
,
[25]
though whether the execution was religious or meant to deter the Byzantines is unclear.
[26]
Historically, however, Judaism itself was introduced during the reign of
Malkikarib Yuhamin
, the father of Abu Karib.
[27]
The rise of Dhu Nuwas and the persecution of Christians in the Himyarite realms
By the year 400, on the eve of the regency of
Marthad'ilan Yu'nim
(c. 400?485) the kingdom of Himyar exercised control over much of the Arabian peninsula.
[28]
It was around this time that the
Kingdom of Aksum
invaded the peninsula, overthrowing the Himyarite king and installing in his place the native Christian king,
Ma'dikarib Ya'fur
.
[29]
[30]
[31]
A Himyarite prince and hardline follower of Judaism,
Dhu Nuwas
(who had attempted to overthrow the dynasty several years earlier), took power after Ma'dikarib Ya'fur had died via a coup d'etat, assuming authority after killing the Aksumite garrison in Zaf?r. He proceeded to engage the Ethiopian guards, and their Christian allies in the
Tih?ma
coastal lowlands facing Abyssinia. After taking the port of
Mukhaw?n
, where he burnt down the local church, he advanced south as far as the fortress of Maddab?n overlooking the
Bab-el-Mandeb
, where he expected
Kaleb Ella A?be?a
to land his fleet.
[19]
The campaign eventually killed between 11,500 and 14,000, and took a similar number of prisoners.
[28]
Mukhaw?n became his base, while he dispatched one of his generals, a Jewish prince named Shara?'?l Yaqbul dhu Yaz'an, against
Najr?n
, a predominantly Christian oasis, with a good number of Jews, who had supported with troops his earlier rebellion, but refused to recognize his authority after the massacre of the Aksumite garrison. The general blocked the caravan route connecting Najr?n with Eastern Arabia.
[19]
The end of Jewish rule over Himyar
Dhu Nuwas went on to try combatting the Christianizing influence from the
Kingdom of Aksum
militarily and massacred the
Christian community of Najran
,
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
which is in part documented by an inscription made by Sarah'il Yaqbul-Yaz'an,
Ja 1028
, which describes the burning of a church and slaughtering of Abyssinians (Ethiopian Christians), claiming thousands of deaths and prisoners. These events are also discussed in several contemporary Christian sources: in the writings of
Procopius
,
Cosmas Indicopleustes
,
John Malalas
, and
Jacob of Serugh
. Soon afterwards,
John of Ephesus
(d. 588) related a letter from another contemporary, Mar Simeon, directed to Abbot von Gabula about the events. In addition, an anonymous author produced the
Book of the Himyarites
, a sixth-century
Syriac
chronicle of the persecution and martyrdom of the Christians of Najran. This event to a significant counterattack by the Ethiopian kingdom, leading to the conquest of Himyar in 525?530 and the ultimate defeat and deposition of Dhu Nuwas. This signified the end of the Jewish leadership of southern Arabia,
[36]
and Kaleb appointed a Christian Himyarite,
Sumyafa Ashwa
, as his viceroy and vassal ruler of Himyar.
[37]
Aksumite-Sasanian Wars and the Sasanian conquest of Yemen
The Aksumite general,
Abraha
, eventually deposed Sumyafa Ashwa and took power, becoming the new ruler of Himyar.
[37]
After Abraha's death, his son
Masruq ibn Abraha
continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to the Aksumites. However, his maternal brother
Ma'adi Yakrib
revolted.
After being denied by
Justinian
, Ma'adi Yakrib sought help from
Khosrow I
, the Sassanid Persian Emperor, thus triggering the Aksumite?Persian wars. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under Persian military commander Wahrez to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the Siege of Sana'a, capital of Aksumite Yemen. Following the capture of Sana?a by Sasanian forces, Wahrez placed Ma'adi Yakrib on the throne of Himyar as a vassal of the
Sasanian Persian Empire
.
[38]
In 575 or 578, the war resumed again, after Ma'adi Yakrib was killed by Aksumites servants. Wahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum overlordship on Yemen. Subsequently, Yemen was
annexed by the Sasanian Empire as a province
, and Wahrez was installed as its direct governor by the
Sasanian emperor
Khosrow I.
[38]
Greater Yemen
remained under firm Sasanian control until the rise of the
Islamic
prophet
Muhammad
in the early 7th century.
Religion
Polytheistic period
There is evidence prior to the fourth century that the
solar goddess
Shams
was especially favoured in Himyar, being the national goddess and possibly an ancestral deity.
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
Jewish period
During the fourth century onwards after the Himyarite kingdom (or at least its ruling class) converted to Judaism, or a Jewish-inflected monotheism, references to pagan gods disappeared from royal inscriptions and texts on public buildings, and were replaced by references to a single deity in official texts. Inscriptions in the Sabean language, and sometimes Hebrew, called this deity
Rahmanan
(
The Merciful
), “Lord of the Heavens and Earth,” the “God of Israel” and “Lord of the Jews”. Prayers invoking Rahman's blessings on the “people of Israel” in monumental inscriptions often ended with the Hebrew words
shalom
and
amen
.
[43]
There is scanter material regarding the religious affiliations of the locals. All inscriptions are monotheistic, but the religious identity of their authors is not always explicit. However, there is evidence for the practice of Judaism among locals as well. The name "Israel" appears in four inscriptions and replaces the earlier term sha?b/community:
[44]
one inscription from the fifth century mentions the "God of Israel".
[45]
Three inscriptions mention the "God of the Jews". MAFRAY-?a?? 1, describes the construction of a graveyard specifically for the Jewish community.
[46]
There is a Hebrew inscription known as
DJE 23
from the village of
Bayt Hadir
, 15 km east of
Sanaa
. It lists the
mishmarot
("guards"), enumerating the twenty-four Priestly families (and their place of residence in
Galilee
) appointed to protect the
Solomon's Temple
after the return of the Jews following the
Babylonian exile
. It is also written in biblical as opposed to Aramaic orthography.
[47]
Mentions of synagogues, indicating the formal organization of Jews in Southern Arabia, are present in a fourth-century
Sabaic
inscription and a late sixth century Greek inscription from the port of Q?ni? which uses the phrase
eis Theos
to refer to God and mentions a
hagios topos
, a phrase typically connoting a
synagogue
.
[48]
[49]
Additional evidence is also known.
[50]
Christian Julien Robin argues that the epigraphic evidence argues against viewing the Judaism of Himyar as rabbinic. This is based on the absence of belief in the afterlife (shared by the
Sadducees
), the predominant use of a local language (Sabaic) as opposed to Hebrew, and the priestly emphasis of DJE 23, Himyarite Judaism may have been more "Priestly" than "Rabbinic".
[51]
However, Iwona Gajda interprets DJE 23 as evidence for the presence of rabbinic Judaism, and further points to evidence that the loanwords present in ?as? 1 indicate that its author was strongly familiar with
Jewish law
.
[52]
Unfortunately, Jewish literary texts outside of Yemen do not discuss the Jewish community there.
[53]
However, epigraphs from Palestine and Jordan do reflect communication and knowledge from the Yemenite Jewish community:
- An inscription from Palestine using the
Sabaic
script (a South Arabian script) is known.
- A Greek inscription from the village of
Beit She'arim
mentions the burial of a "Himyarite".
- A fifth-century Hebrew epitaph from
Zoara
,
Jordan
describes an individual named Ywsh br ?Wfy who "died in ?af?r, the land of the ?imyarites".
These communication routes may have also transferred rabbinic and other Jewish teachings.
[54]
Christian period
During the Ethiopian Christian period, Christianity appears to have become the official religion.
[55]
Many churches began to be built.
[56]
For example, the inscription RIE 191, discovered in
Axum
, describes the construction of a church off the coast of Yemen. The Marib Dam inscription from 548 mentions a priest, a
monastery
, and an
abbot
of that monastery.
[9]
As in the Himyarite period, Christian inscriptions continue to refer to the monotheistic deity using the name
Rahmanan
, but now these inscriptions are accompanied with crosses and references to Christ as the Messiah and the Holy Spirit. For example, one (damaged) inscription, as for example in Ist 7608 bis. Another extensive inscription, CIH 541, documents Abraha sponsoring the construction of a church at
Marib
, besides invoking/mentioning the Messiah, Spirit, and celebrations hosted by a priest at another church. Abraha celebrated the construction of the dam by holding mass in the city church and inviting ambassadors from Rome and Persia. Later Islamic historiography also ascribes to Abraha the construction of a church at
Sanaa
. Abraha's inscriptions bear a relatively low Christology, perhaps meant to assuage the Jewish population, and their formulae resemble descriptions of Jesus in the
Quran
.
[57]
(The
Jabal Dabub inscription
is another South Arabian Christian graffito dating to the sixth century and containing a pre-Islamic variant of the
Basmala
.
[58]
) Whereas Abraha's predecessor more explicitly denoted Jesus as the Son of Rahmanan and as "Victor" (corresponding to Aksumite description under
Kaleb of Axum
), and made use of Trinitarian formulae, Abraha began to only describe Jesus as God's "Messiah" (but not Son) and, in aligning himself more closely with
Syriac Christianity
, replaced Aksumite Christian with Syriac loanwords.
[55]
The use of the phrase "Rahmanan and his son Christ the conqueror" in inscriptions from this time owes to the use of the Syriac loanword Mas??.
[59]
More broadly, the separation of Abraha's Himyar from the Akumsite kingdom corresponded to its greater alignment with the Christianity espoused in
Antioch
and Syria. Inscriptions from this region disappear after 560.
[55]
Abraha's influence would end up extending across the regions he conquered, including regions of eastern Arabia, central Arabia,
Medina
in the
Hejaz
, and an unidentified site called Gzm.
[60]
Military
As the Byzantines were usually equipped with armored horses, Indian fenestrated battle axe, round shield, spear, and scale or mail armor,
Paul Yule
argued that the Himyarite soldiers were armed in comparable fashion, if not as consistently.
[61]
Language
It is a matter of debate whether the ?ayhadic Himyarite language was spoken in the south-western Arabian peninsula until the 10th century.
[62]
The few 'Himyarite' texts seem to be rhymed.
List of rulers
Himyarite dynasties after the coming of Islam
After the spread of Islam in Yemen, Himyarite noble families were able to re-establish control over parts of Yemen.
Many Himyarites participated in the
Muslim conquest of Syria
in the 630s and, along with other South Arabian tribes, settled in city of
Homs
after its capture in 637.
The city became the center of these tribes in
Islamic Syria
, which served as the center of the
Caliphate
during
Umayyad
rule (661?750).
The two principal Himyarite families that established themselves in Homs were the Dhu Asbah and Dhu'l-Kala.
The latter had been the most influential family in South Arabia before the advent of Islam there.
Among the leaders of the conquering Muslim troops was the Himyarite prince
Samayfa ibn Nakur
of the Dhu'l-Kala.
The Asbah chief Kurayb ibn Abraha Abu Rishdin led the Himyar of Homs, but he later moved to Egypt with most of the Dhu Asbah. Members of that family, Abraha ibn Sabbah and his son Abu Shamir, had participated in the
Muslim conquest of Egypt
in 640?641.
Samayfa was another dominant figure of the city and was referred to in the early Muslim sources as the "king of Himyar".
During the governorship of Syria by
Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan
(640s?661), the Himyarites supported him against Caliph
Ali
(
r.
656?661
) during the
First Muslim Civil War
.
At the
Battle of Siffin
with Ali in 657, Samayfa led the Homs contingent in Mu'awiya's army and was slain. He was succeeded by his son Shurahbil as the power-broker of the Homs tribesmen.
According to the historian
Werner Caskel
, the Himyar and the other South Arabian tribes of Homs, including the
Hamdan
, formed a confederation called after their supposed ancestor
Qahtan
in opposition to the
Quda'a
confederation, whose constituent tribes had long resided in Syria before the advent of Islam. To the chagrin of the South Arabians in Homs and the
Qays
tribes of northern Syria, the Quda'a, led by the
Banu Kalb
tribe, held the supreme position among the tribal groups in the courts of the first Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (
r.
661?680
) and
Yazid I
(
r.
680?683
).
With the strong presence of the Himyarite elite and South Arabian tribesmen in Homs, their scholars there developed and propagated an ideology of Qahtanite preeminence that sought to compete with the elite groups of Islam, including the
Quraysh
, whose members held the office of the caliph. To that end, they composed and transmitted narratives of the pre-Islamic South Arabian kingdoms, including war stories of these kings' far-flung conquests and heroics and tales of their wealth.
After the deaths of Yazid I and his son and successor
Mu'awiya II
in 683 and 684, respectively, the Qahtan and the Qays backed the rival caliphate of
Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
, who was based in
Mecca
, while the Quda'a supported the candidacy of the Umayyad
Marwan I
.
Kurayb ibn Abraha also backed Ibn al-Zubayr in Egypt.
The Qahtan joined Ibn al-Zubayr's representative in Syria,
Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri
, in the
Battle of Marj Rahit
against Marwan and the Quda'a in 684. The latter decisively won that battle. Afterward, Dahhak's commander in Homs,
Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari
, was tracked down and killed by the Dhu'l-Kala. A member of the family who had served as the head of Yazid I's
shurta
(select troops),
Khalid ibn Ma'dan ibn Abi Karib
, decapitated Nu'man and sent his head to Marwan I.
Not long after Marj Rahit, Qahtan and Quda'a reconciled under unclear circumstances and formed the super-tribal group of the
Yaman
in alliance against the Qays.
[c]
The resulting
Qays?Yaman rivalry
for political power and privilege persisted through the remainder of Umayyad rule.
In 686 Shurahbil ibn Dhi'l-Kala, the leader of the Himyar in Syria, was slain commanding his troops in the Umayyad army at the
Battle of Khazir
.
As a consequence, the Himyar in Homs "sank to military insignificance", according to the historian
Wilferd Madelung
.
Khalid ibn Ma'dan maintained his position of prestige with the
Umayyad dynasty
and Syrian Muslim society in general, having shifted to a new role as a prominent Muslim scholar.
Kurayb's cousin Ayyub ibn Shurahbil ibn Sabbah served as the governor of Egypt under Caliph
Umar II
(
r.
717?720
),
while a Dhu'l-Kala member, Imran ibn al-Nu'man, served as the Caliph's governor of
Sind
.
During the
Third Muslim Civil War
, the Dhu Asbah tribesmen who had remained in South Arabia are recorded among the supporters of the Kharijite leader Abu Hamza.
A possible member of the family in Syria, Nadr ibn Yarim, led a summertime military expedition against the Byzantines under the Abbasid caliph
al-Saffah
(
r.
750?754
).
Ancestral divisions of Himyar
Kahlan septs emigrated from Yemen to dwell in the different parts of the Arabian Peninsula prior to the Great Flood (Sail Al-‘Arim of
Marib Dam
), due to the failure of trade under the Roman pressure and domain on both sea and land trade routes following Roman occupation of Egypt and Syria.
Naturally enough, the competition between
Kahlan
and
?imyar
led to the evacuation of the first and the settlement of the second in Yemen.
The emigrating septs of Kahlan can be divided into four groups:
- Azd
: Who, under the leadership of ‘Imr?n bin ‘Amr Muzaiqb?’, wandered in Yemen, sent pioneers and finally headed northwards. Details of their emigration can be summed up as follows:
- Tha‘labah bin ‘Amr left his tribe Al-Azd for ?ij?z and dwelt between Tha‘labiyah and Dh? Q?r. When he gained strength, he headed for
Mad?nah
where he stayed. Of his seed are Aws and Khazraj, sons of Haritha bin Tha‘labah.
- Haritha bin ‘Amr, known as Khuz?‘ah, wandered with his people in Hijaz until they came to Mar Az-Zahran. They conquered the ?aram, and settled in
Makkah
after having driven away its people, the tribe of
Jurhum
.
- ‘Imr?n bin ‘Amr and his folks went to ‘Oman where they established the tribe of Azd whose children inhabited Tihama and were known as Azd-of-Shanu’a.
- Jafna bin ‘Amr and his family, headed for Syria where he settled and initiated the kingdom of
Ghassan
who was so named after a spring of water, in ?ij?z, where they stopped on their way to Syria.
- Lakhm
and
Judham
: Of whom was Nasr bin Rabi‘a, father of Manadhira, Kings of
al-Hirah
.
- Ban?
?ayy
: Who also emigrated northwards to settle by the so- called Aja and Salma Mountains which were consequently named as Tai’ Mountains. The tribe later became the tribe of
Shammar
.
- Kinda
: Who dwelt in Bahrain but were expelled to Hadramout and Najd where they instituted a powerful government but not for long, for the whole tribe soon faded away.
Another tribe of Himyar, known as
Ban? Qu??'ah
, also left Yemen and dwelt in
Sam?wah
on the borders of Iraq.
However, it is estimated that the majority of the ?imyar Christian royalty migrated into Jordan, Al-Karak, where initially they were known as Ban? ?imyar (Sons of ?imyar). Many later on moved to central Jordan
to settle in Madaba under the family name of Al-Hamarneh (pop 12,000, est. 2010)
[
citation needed
]
See also
Notes
- ^
Although it may possibly have been adopted earlier.
- ^
(
Arabic
:
????? ???????
,
romanized
:
Mamlakat ?imyar
,
Hebrew
:
????? ???????
) or
Himyar
(
Arabic
:
???????
,
?imyar;
?ayhadic
:
??????????
,
?myrm
) historically referred to as the
Homerite Kingdom
by the Greeks and the Romans (its subjects being called
Homeritae
)
- ^
In forming the pact, the Kalb and Quda'a changed their genealogical descent to Himyar from the north Arabian tribe of
Ma'add
.
References
- ^
a
b
"Encyclopædia Britannica,
Himyar
"
.
Archived
from the original on 6 September 2015
. Retrieved
21 June
2022
.
- ^
"GREECE. PALESTINE. HIMYARITES. Taran Yaub, ca. 200 A.D. … | Drouot.com"
.
drouot.com
.
- ^
"Greek Coinage; Arabia Felix Himyarites, 1st Century AD, NGC VF, Store #191510"
.
Integrity Coin Store
.
- ^
a
b
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External links