Area of northern Britain, c. 500 to c. 800
Yr Hen Ogledd
(
Welsh pronunciation:
[?r
?heːn
???l?ð]
), meaning
the Old North
, is the
historical region
that was inhabited by the
Brittonic people
of
sub-Roman Britain
in the
Early Middle Ages
, now
Northern England
and the southern
Scottish Lowlands
, alongside the fellow Brittonic Celtic
Kingdom of Elmet
. Its population spoke a variety of the
Brittonic language
known as
Cumbric
which is closely related to, if not a dialect of
Old Welsh
. The
people of Wales
and the Hen Ogledd considered themselves to be one people, and both were referred to as
Cymry
('fellow-countrymen') from the Brittonic word
combrogi
. The Hen Ogledd was distinct from the parts of
Great Britain
inhabited by the
Picts
,
Anglo-Saxons
, and
Scoti
.
The major kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd were
Elmet
,
Gododdin
,
Rheged
, and the
Kingdom of Strathclyde
(Welsh:
Ystrad Clud
). Smaller kingdoms included
Aeron
and
Calchfynydd
.
Eidyn
,
Lleuddiniawn
, and
Manaw Gododdin
were evidently parts of Gododdin. The later
Angle
kingdoms of
Deira
and
Bernicia
both had Brittonic-derived names, suggesting they may have been Brittonic kingdoms originally. All the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd except Strathclyde were gradually either integrated or subsumed by the emerging Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Gaelic Scots and fellow Brittonic Picts by about 800; Strathclyde was eventually incorporated into the rising
Middle Irish
-speaking
Kingdom of Scotland
in the 11th century.
The memory of the Hen Ogledd remained strong in Wales after its fall, and indeed the term came into being in Wales after the destruction of the Brittonic kingdoms of the north. Welsh tradition included genealogies of the
Gw?r y Gogledd
, or Men of the North, and several important Welsh dynasties traced their lineage to them. A number of important early Welsh texts were attributed to the Men of the North, such as
Taliesin
,
Aneirin
,
Myrddin Wyllt
, and the
Cynfeirdd
poets. Heroes of the north such as
Urien
,
Owain mab Urien
, and
Coel Hen
and his descendants feature in Welsh poetry and the
Welsh Triads
.
Background
[
edit
]
Almost nothing is reliably known of Central Britain before c. 550. There had never been a period of long-term, effective
Roman
control north of the
Tyne
?
Solway
line, and south of that line effective Roman control began to erode before the traditionally given date of departure of the
Roman military
from
Roman Britain
in 407. It was noted in the writings of
Ammianus Marcellinus
and others that there was ever-decreasing Roman control from about AD 100 onward, and in the years after 360 there was widespread disorder and the large-scale permanent abandonment of territory by the Romans.
[
citation needed
]
By 550, the region was controlled by native
Brittonic
-speaking peoples except for the eastern coastal areas, which were controlled by the Anglian peoples of
Bernicia
and
Deira
. To the north were the
Picts
(now also accepted as Brittonic speakers prior to Gaelicisation) with the
Gaelic
kingdom of
Dal Riata
to the northwest. All of these peoples would play a role in the history of the Old North.
[
citation needed
]
Historical context
[
edit
]
From a historical perspective, wars were frequently internecine, and Britons were aggressors as well as defenders, as was also true of the Angles, Picts, and
Gaels
.
[
citation needed
]
However, those Welsh stories of the Hen Ogledd that tell of Britons fighting Anglians have a counterpart, told from the opposite side. The story of the demise of the kingdoms of the Old North is the story of the rise of the Kingdom of
Northumbria
from two coastal kingdoms to become the premier power in Britain north of the
Humber
and south of the
Firth of Clyde
and the
Firth of Forth
.
The interests of kingdoms of this era were not restricted to their immediate vicinity. Alliances were not made only within the same ethnic groups, nor were enmities restricted to nearby different ethnic groups. An alliance of Britons fought against another alliance of Britons at the
Battle of Arfderydd
.
Aedan mac Gabrain
of
Dal Riata
appears in the
Bonedd Gw?r y Gogledd
, a genealogy among the pedigrees of the Men of the North.
[1]
The
Historia Brittonum
states that
Oswiu
, king of Northumbria, married a Briton who may have had some Pictish ancestry.
[2]
[3]
A marriage between the Northumbrian and Pictish royal families would produce the Pictish king
Talorgan I
. Aedan mac Gabrain fought as an ally of the Britons against the Northumbrians.
Cadwallon ap Cadfan
of the
Kingdom of Gwynedd
allied with
Penda of Mercia
to defeat
Edwin of Northumbria
.
Conquest and defeat did not necessarily mean the extirpation of one culture and its replacement by another. The Brittonic region of northwestern England was absorbed by Anglian Northumbria in the 7th century, yet it would re-emerge 300 years later as South Cumbria, joined with North Cumbria (Strathclyde) into a single state.
Societal context
[
edit
]
The organisation of the Men of the North was
tribal
,
[note 1]
based on
kinship
groups of extended families, owing allegiance to a dominant "royal" family, sometimes indirectly through client relationships, and receiving protection in return. For
Celtic
peoples, this organisation was still in effect hundreds of years later, as shown in the Irish
Brehon law
, the Welsh
Laws of Hywel Dda
, and the
Scottish
Laws of the Brets and Scots
. The
Anglo-Saxon law
had culturally different origins, but with many similarities to
Celtic law
. Like Celtic law, it was based on cultural tradition, without any perceivable debt to the Roman occupation of Britain.
[note 2]
A primary
royal court
(
Welsh
:
llys
) would be maintained as a "capital", but it was not the bureaucratic administrative centre of modern society, nor the settlement or
civitas
of Roman rule. As the ruler and protector of his kingdom, the king would maintain multiple courts throughout his territory, travelling among them to exercise his authority and to address the needs of his people, such as in the dispensing of justice. This ancient method of dispensing justice survived as a part of royal procedure until the reforms of
Henry II
(reigned 1154?1189) modernised the administration of law.
Language
[
edit
]
Modern scholarship uses the term "Cumbric" for the Brittonic language spoken in the Hen Ogledd. It appears to have been very closely related to
Old Welsh
, with some local variances, and more distantly related to
Cornish
,
Breton
and the pre-Gaelic form of
Pictish
. There are no surviving texts written in the dialect; evidence for it comes from placenames, proper names in a few early
inscriptions
and later non-Cumbric sources, two terms in the
Leges inter Brettos et Scottos
, and the corpus of poetry by the
cynfeirdd
, the "early poets", nearly all of which deals with the north.
[4]
The
cynfeirdd
poetry is the largest source of information, and it is generally accepted that some part of the corpus was first composed in the Hen Ogledd.
[4]
However, it survives entirely in later manuscripts created in Wales where the oral tradition continued on, and it is unknown how faithful they are to the originals. Still, the texts do contain discernible variances that distinguish the speech from the Welsh dialects. In particular, these texts contain a number of
archaisms
? features that appear to have once been common in all Brittonic varieties, but which later vanished from Welsh and the
Southwestern Brittonic languages
.
[4]
In general, however, the differences appear to be slight, and the distinction between Cumbric and Old Welsh is largely geographical rather than linguistic.
[5]
Cumbric gradually disappeared as the area was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, and later the Scots and
Norse
, though it survived in the
Kingdom of Strathclyde
, centred at Alt Clut in what is now
Dumbarton
in Scotland.
Kenneth H. Jackson
suggested that it re-emerged in
Cumbria
in the 10th century, as Strathclyde established hegemony over that area. It is unknown when Cumbric finally became extinct, but the series of
counting systems of Brittonic origin
recorded in Northern England since the 18th century have been proposed as evidence of a survival of elements of Cumbric;
[5]
though the view has been largely rejected on linguistic grounds, with evidence pointing to the fact that it was imported to England after the
Old English
era.
[6]
[7]
Welsh tradition
[
edit
]
One of the traditional stories relating to the genealogies of Welsh dynasties derived from
Cunedda
and his sons as "Men of the North". Cunedda himself is held to be the progenitor of the royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Gwynedd, one of the largest and most powerful of the medieval Welsh kingdoms, and an ongoing connection to the Hen Ogledd. Cunedda genealogy shows him as a descendant of one of
Magnus Maximus
' generals, Paternus, who Maximus appointed as commander at Alt Clut. The Welsh and the Men of the North saw themselves as one people and the
Welsh
name for themselves,
Cymry
, derives from this ancient relationship although this is debatable as while Gwynedd seemed to have good relationships with them along with Ceredigion but it is unknown how the other Welsh Kingdoms saw them as they were not unified themselves, especially the southern Kingdoms like Dyfed and the Ystrad Tywi who had heavy Irish presence at the time. 'Cymry' was a term that referred to both the Welsh and the Men of the North but was sometimes applied to others as well such as the Picts and the Irish.
[9]
[10]
It is derived from the Brittonic word c
ombrogoi
, which meant "fellow-countrymen", and it is worth noting in passing that its
Breton
counterpart
kenvroiz
still has this original meaning "compatriots". The word began to be used as an endonym by the Men of the North during the early 7th century (and possibly earlier),
[11]
and was used throughout the
Middle Ages
to describe the
Kingdom of Strathclyde
. Before this, and for some centuries after, the traditional as well as the more literary term was
Brythoniaid
, recalling the still older time when all on the island remained a unity.
Cymry
survives today in the native name for Wales (
Cymru
, land of the
Cymry
), and in the English county name
Cumbria
, both meaning "homeland", "mother country".
Many of the traditional sources of information about the Hen Ogledd survive in Welsh tradition, and bards such as
Aneirin
(the reputed author of
Y Gododdin
) are thought to have been court poets in the Hen Ogledd.
Nature of the sources
[
edit
]
A listing of passages from the literary and historical sources, particularly relevant to the Hen Ogledd, can be found in Sir
Edward Anwyl
's article
Wales and the Britons of the North
.
[12]
A somewhat dated introduction to the study of old Welsh poetry can be found in his 1904 article
Prolegomena to the Study of Old Welsh Poetry
.
[13]
Literary sources
[
edit
]
Stories praising a patron and the construction of flattering genealogies are neither unbiased nor reliable sources of historically accurate information. However, while they may exaggerate and make apocryphal assertions, they do not falsify or change the historical facts that were known to the bards' listeners, as that would bring ridicule and disrepute to both the bards and their patrons. In addition, the existence of stories of defeat and
tragedy
, as well as stories of victory, lends additional credibility to their value as sources of history. Within that context, the stories contain useful information, much of it incidental, about an era of British history where very little is reliably known.
Historical sources
[
edit
]
These sources are not without deficiencies. Both the authors and their later transcribers sometimes displayed a partisanship that promoted their own interests, portraying their own agendas in a positive light, always on the side of justice and moral rectitude. Facts in opposition to those agendas are sometimes omitted, and apocryphal entries are sometimes added.
While Bede was a Northumbrian partisan and spoke with prejudice against the native Britons, his
Ecclesiastical History of the English People
is highly regarded for its effort towards an accurate telling of history, and for its use of reliable sources. When passing along "traditional" information that lacks a historical foundation, Bede takes care to note it as such.
[16]
The
De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae
by
Gildas
(c. 516?570) is occasionally relevant in that it mentions early people and places also mentioned in the literary and historical sources. The work was intended to preach Christianity to Gildas' contemporaries and was not meant to be a history. It is one of the few contemporary accounts of his era to have survived.
Place names
[
edit
]
Brittonic place names in Scotland south of the Forth and Clyde, and in Cumberland and neighbouring counties, indicate areas of Hen Ogledd inhabited by Britons in the early Middle Ages.
Isolated locations of later British presence are also indicated by place names of
Old English
and
Old Norse
origin. In Yorkshire, the names of
Walden
,
Walton
and
Walburn
, from Old English
walas
"Britons or Welshmen", indicate Britons encountered by the Anglo-Saxons, and the name of
Birkby
, from Old Norse
Breta
"Britons", indicates a place where the Vikings met Britons.
[17]
Dubious and fraudulent sources
[
edit
]
The
Historia Regum Britanniae
of
Geoffrey of Monmouth
is disparaged as
pseudohistory
, though it looms large as a source for the largely fictional
chivalric romance
stories known collectively as the
Matter of Britain
. The lack of historical value attributed to the
Historia
lies only partly in the fact that it contains so many fictions and falsifications of history;
[note 3]
the fact that historical accuracy clearly was not a consideration in its creation makes any references to actual people and places no more than a literary convenience.
The
Iolo Manuscripts
are a collection of manuscripts presented in the early 19th century by Edward Williams, who is better known as
Iolo Morganwg
. Containing various tales, anecdotal material and elaborate genealogies that connect virtually everyone of note with everyone else of note (and with many connections to
Arthur
and Iolo's native region of
Morgannwg
), they were at first accepted as genuine, but have since been shown to be an assortment of forged or doctored manuscripts, transcriptions, and fantasies, mainly invented by Iolo himself. A list of works tainted by their reliance on the material presented by Iolo (sometimes without attribution) would be quite long.
Kingdoms and regions
[
edit
]
Major kingdoms
[
edit
]
Places in the Old North that are mentioned as kingdoms in the literary and historical sources include:
- Alt Clut
or Ystrad Clud ? a kingdom centred at what is now
Dumbarton
in Scotland. Later known as Strathclyde, and possibly even later as Cumbria, it was one of the best attested of the northern British kingdoms. It was also the last surviving, as it operated as an independent realm into the 11th century before it was finally absorbed by the
Kingdom of Scotland
.
[21]
- Elmet
? centred in western
Yorkshire
in northern England. It was located south of the other northern British kingdoms, and well east of present-day Wales, but managed to survive into the early 7th century.
[22]
- Gododdin
? a kingdom in what is now southeastern Scotland and northeastern England, the area previously noted as the territory of the
Votadini
. They are the subjects of the poem
Y Gododdin
, which memorialises a
disastrous raid
by an army raised by the Gododdin on the Angles of
Bernicia
.
[23]
- Rheged
? a major kingdom that evidently included parts of present-day
Cumbria
, though its full extent is unknown. It may have covered a vast area at one point, as it is very closely associated with its king
Urien
, whose name is tied to places all over northwestern Britain.
[24]
Minor kingdoms and other regions
[
edit
]
Several regions are mentioned in the sources, assumed to be notable regions within one of the kingdoms if not separate kingdoms themselves:
- Aeron
? a minor kingdom mentioned in sources such as
Y Gododdin
, its location is uncertain, but several scholars have suggested that it was in the
Ayrshire
region of southwest Scotland.
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
It is frequently associated with
Urien Rheged
, and may have been part of his realm.
[29]
- Calchfynydd
("Chalkmountain") ? almost nothing is known about this area, though it was likely somewhere in the Hen Ogledd, as an evident ruler,
Cadrawd Calchfynydd
, is listed in the
Bonedd Gw?r y Gogledd
.
William Forbes Skene
suggested an identification with
Kelso
(formerly Calchow) in the
Scottish Borders
.
[30]
- Eidyn
? this was the area around the modern city of
Edinburgh
, then known as
Din Eidyn
(Fort of Eidyn). It was closely associated with the Gododdin kingdom.
[31]
Kenneth H. Jackson
argued strongly that
Eidyn
referred exclusively to Edinburgh,
[32]
but other scholars have taken it as a designation for the wider area.
[33]
[34]
The name may survive today in toponyms such as
Edinburgh
(Dunedin in Gaelic, Din Eidyn in
Cumbric
, and
Carriden
(from
Caer Eidyn
)), located fifteen miles to the west.
[35]
Din Eidyn was besieged by the Angles in 638 and was under their control for most of the next three centuries.
[31]
- Manaw Gododdin
? the coastal area south of the
Firth of Forth
, and part of the territory of the Gododdin.
[23]
The name survives in Slamannan Moor and the village of
Slamannan
, in
Stirlingshire
.
[36]
This is derived from
Sliabh Manann
, the 'Moor of Manann'.
[37]
It also appears in the name of
Dalmeny
, some 5 miles northwest of
Edinburgh
, and formerly known as Dumanyn, assumed to be derived from
Dun Manann
.
[37]
The name also survives north of the Forth in Pictish Manaw as the name of the
burgh
of
Clackmannan
and the eponymous county of
Clackmannanshire
,
[38]
derived from
Clach Manann
, the 'stone of Manann',
[37]
referring to a monument stone located there.
- Novant
? a kingdom mentioned in
Y Gododdin
, presumably related to the Iron Age
Novantae
tribe of southwestern Scotland.
[39]
[40]
- Regio Dunutinga
? a minor kingdom or region in
North Yorkshire
mentioned in the
Life of Wilfrid
. It was evidently named for a ruler named Dunaut, perhaps the
Dunaut ap Pabo
known from the genealogies.
[41]
Its name may survive in the modern town of
Dent
, Cumbria.
[42]
Kingdoms that were not part of the Old North but are part of its history include:
Possible kingdoms
[
edit
]
The following names appear in historical and literary sources, but it is unknown whether or not they refer to British kingdoms and regions of the
Hen Ogledd
.
- Bryneich
? this is the British name for the
Anglo-Saxon
kingdom of
Bernicia
. There was probably a British kingdom in this area before the Anglian kingdom, it this is uncertain.
[43]
- Deifr
or Dewr ? this was the British name for Anglo-Saxon
Deira
, a region between the
River Tees
and the
Humber
. The name is of British origin, as with Bryneich, it is unknown if it represented an earlier British kingdom.
[44]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The tribal domains were called kingdoms and were led by a king, but were not organised nation-states in the modern (or ancient Roman) sense of the word. The kingdoms might grow and shrink based on the transitory fortunes of the leading tribe and royal family, with regional alliances and enmities playing a part in the resulting organisation. This organisation was applicable to southern Wales of the
post-Roman
era, where the royal inter-relationships of the kingdoms of
Glywysing
,
Gwent
, and
Ergyng
are so completely inter-twined that it is not possible to construct an independent history for any of them. When contention (i.e., war) occurred, it was between high-ranking individuals and their respective clients, in the manner of the contending
House of Lancaster
and
House of York
during the
Wars of the Roses
in the 15th century.
- ^
"Anglo-Saxon law" is a modern
neologism
for the Saxon Law of Wessex, the Anglian Law of Mercia, and the
Danelaw
, all of which were sufficiently similar to merit inclusion within this umbrella term. The laws of Anglian
Northumbria
were supplanted by the Danelaw, but were certainly similar to these. The origins of
English law
have been much studied. For example, the 12th century
Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae
(
Treatise on the laws and customs of the Kingdom of England
) is the
book of authority
on English
common law
, and scholars have held that it owes a debt to
Norman law
and to
Germanic law
, and not to
Roman law
.
- ^
Scholarly works by reputable authors, such as
Lloyd
's 1911
A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest
, contain numerous citations of Geoffrey's fabrications of history, never citing him as a source of legitimate historical information.
[18]
More recent works of history tend to spend less energy on Geoffrey's
Historia
, merely ignoring him in passing. In
Davies
's 1990
A History of Wales
, the first paragraph of page 1 discusses Geoffrey's prominence, after which he is occasionally mentioned as the source of historical inaccuracies and not as a source of legitimate historical information.
[19]
Earlier works might devote a few paragraphs detailing the proof that Geoffrey was the inventor of fictitious information, such as in James Parker's
The Early History of Oxford
, where persons such as Eldad, Eldod, Abbot Ambrius, and others are noted to be the result of Geoffrey's own imagination.
[20]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
Bromwich 2006, pp. 256?257
- ^
Nennius
(800),
"Genealogies of the Saxon kings of Northumbria"
, in
Stevenson, Joseph
(ed.),
Nennii Historia Britonum
, London: English Historical Society (published 1838), p. 50
- ^
Nicholson, E. W. B. (1912),
"The 'Annales Cambriae' and their so-called 'Exordium'
"
, in Meyer, Kuno (ed.),
Zeitschrift fur Celtische Philologie
, vol. VIII, Halle: Max Niemeyer, p. 145
- ^
a
b
c
Koch 2006, p. 516.
- ^
a
b
Koch 2006, p. 517.
- ^
A Dictionary of English Folklore
, Jacqueline Simpson, Stephen Roud, Oxford University Press, 2000,
ISBN
0-19-210019-X
, 9780192100191,
Shepeherd's score
, pp. 271
- ^
Margaret L. Faull, Local Historian 15:1 (1982), 21?3
- ^
Lloyd, John Edward
(1912).
A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest
. Longmans, Green. p.
191
.
- ^
Phillimore, Egerton (1888),
"Review of "A History of Ancient Tenures of Land in the Marches of North Wales"
"
, in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.),
Y Cymmrodor
, vol. IX, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 368?371
- ^
Phillimore, Egerton (1891),
"Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany"
, in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.),
Y Cymmrodor
, vol. XI, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (published 1892), pp. 97?101
- ^
Anwyl, Edward
(July 1907 ? April 1908),
"Wales and the Britons of the North"
,
The Celtic Review
, vol. IV, Edinburgh: Norman Macleod (published 1908), pp. 125?152, 249?273
- ^
Anwyl, Edward
(1904),
"Prolegomena to the Study of Old Welsh Poetry"
,
Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (Session 1903?1904)
, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (published 1905), pp. 59?83
- ^
Lloyd 1911
:122?123, Notes on the Historical Triads, in
The History of Wales
- ^
Rachel Bromwich (ed.),
Trioedd Ynys Prydein
(
University of Wales Press
, revised edition 1991)
ISBN
0-7083-0690-X
.
- ^
For a recent view of Bede's treatment of Britons in his work, see W. Trent Foley and N.J. Higham, "Bede on the Britons."
Early Medieval Europe
17.2 (2009): pp. 154?85.
- ^
Jensen, Gillian Fellows (1978). "Place-Names and Settlement in the North Riding of Yorkshire".
Northern History
.
14
(1): 22?23.
doi
:
10.1179/nhi.1978.14.1.19
.
- ^
Lloyd 1911
,
A History of Wales
- ^
Davies 1990
:1,
A History of Wales
- ^
Parker, James (1885),
"Description of Oxford in Domesday Survey"
,
The Early History of Oxford 727?1100
, Oxford: Oxford Historical Society, p. 291
- ^
Koch 2006, p. 1819.
- ^
Koch 2006, pp. 670?671.
- ^
a
b
Koch 2006, pp. 823?826.
- ^
Koch 2006, pp. 1498?1499.
- ^
Koch 2006, pp. 354?355; 904.
- ^
Bromwich 1978, pp. 12?13; 157.
- ^
Morris-Jones, pp. 75?77.
- ^
Williams 1968, p. xlvii.
- ^
Koch 2006, p. 1499.
- ^
Bromwich 2006, p. 325.
- ^
a
b
Koch 2006, pp. 623?625.
- ^
Jackson 1969, pp. 77?78
- ^
Williams 1972, p. 64.
- ^
Chadwick, p. 107.
- ^
Dumville, p. 297.
- ^
Rhys, John
(1904), "The Picts and Scots",
Celtic Britain
(3rd ed.), London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, p. 155
- ^
a
b
c
Rhys, John
(1901), "Place-Name Stories",
Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx
, vol. II, Oxford: Oxford University, p. 550
- ^
Rhys 1904
:155,
Celtic Britain
, The Picts and the Scots.
- ^
Koch 2006, pp. 824?825.
- ^
Koch 1997, pp. lxxxii?lxxxiii.
- ^
Koch 2006, p. 458.
- ^
Koch 2006, p. 904.
- ^
Koch 2006, pp. 302?304.
- ^
Koch 2006, pp. 584?585.
References
[
edit
]
- Bromwich, Rachel
; Foster, Idris Llewelyn; Jones, R. Brinley (1978),
Astudiaethau ar yr Hengerdd: Studies in Old Welsh Poetry
, University of Wales Press,
ISBN
0-7083-0696-9
- Bromwich, Rachel
(2006),
Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain
, University of Wales Press,
ISBN
0-7083-1386-8
- Chadwick, Nora K.
(1968),
The British Heroic Age: the Welsh and the Men of the North
, University of Wales Press,
ISBN
0-7083-0465-6
- Davies, John
(1990),
A History of Wales
(First ed.), London: Penguin Group (published 1993),
ISBN
0-7139-9098-8
- Dumville, David (1994),
"The eastern terminus of the Antonine Wall: 12th or 13th century evidence"
(PDF)
,
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
,
124
: 293?298,
doi
:
10.9750/PSAS.124.293.298
,
S2CID
159974303
, retrieved
7 September
2011
.
- Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone
(1953),
Language and History in Early Britain: A chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, first to twelfth century A.D.
, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
- Jackson, Kenneth H.
(1969),
The Gododdin: The Oldest Scottish Poem
, Edinburgh University Press
- Koch, John T. (1997),
The Gododdin of Aneirin: Text and Context from Dark-Age North Britain
, University of Wales Press,
ISBN
0-7083-1374-4
- Koch, John T. (2006),
Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia
, ABC-CLIO,
ISBN
978-1-85109-440-0
- Lloyd, John Edward
(1911),
A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest
, vol. I (Second ed.), London: Longmans, Green, and Co. (published 1912)
- Morris-Jones, John (1918),
"Taliesin"
,
Y Cymmrodor
,
28
, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
, retrieved
1 December
2010
.
- Williams, Ifor
(1968),
The Poems of Taliesin: Volume 3 of Mediaeval and Modern Welsh Series
, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
- Williams, Ifor
(1972),
The Beginnings of Welsh Poetry: Studies
, University of Wales Press,
ISBN
0-7083-0035-9
Further reading
[
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]
- Alcock, Leslie.
Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain, AD 550?850
. Edinburgh, 2003.
- Alcock, Leslie. "Gwyr y Gogledd. An archaeological appraisal."
Archaeologia Cambrensis
132 (1984 for 1983). pp. 1?18.
- Cessford, Craig. "Northern England and the Gododdin poem."
Northern History
33 (1997). pp. 218?22.
- Clarkson, Tim.
The Men of the North: the Britons of Southern Scotland.
Edinburgh: John Donald, Birlinn Ltd, 2010.
- Clarkson, Tim.
Strathclyde and the Anglo-Saxons in the Viking Age.
Edinburgh: John Donald, Birlinn Ltd, 2014.
- Dark, Kenneth R.
Civitas to Kingdom. British political continuity, 300?800.
London: Leicester UP, 1994.
- Dumville, David N. "Early Welsh Poetry: Problems of Historicity." In
Early Welsh Poetry: Studies in the Book of Aneirin
, ed. Brynley F. Roberts. Aberystwyth, 1988. 1?16.
- Dumville, David N. "The origins of Northumbria: Some aspects of the British background." In
The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms
, ed. S. Bassett. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1989. pp. 213?22.
- Higham, N.J. "Britons in Northern England: Through a Thick Glass Darkly."
Northern History
38 (2001). pp. 5?25.
- Macquarrie, A. "The Kings of Strathclyde, c.400?1018." In
Medieval Scotland: Government, Lordship and Community
, ed. A. Grant and K.J. Stringer. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1993. pp. 1?19.
- Miller, Molly. "Historicity and the pedigrees of north countrymen."
Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies
26 (1975). pp. 255?80.
- Woolf, Alex. "Cædualla Rex Brettonum and the Passing of the Old North."
Northern History
41.1 (2004): 1?20.
External links
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