Soft calcium sulfate mineral
Gypsum
|
---|
![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gypse_Caresse.jpg/260px-Gypse_Caresse.jpg) |
|
Category
| Sulfate minerals
|
---|
Formula
(repeating unit)
| CaSO
4
·2H
2
O
|
---|
IMA symbol
| Gp
[1]
|
---|
Strunz classification
| 7.CD.40
|
---|
Crystal system
| Monoclinic
|
---|
Crystal class
| Prismatic (2/m)
H-M symbol
: (2/m)
|
---|
Space group
| Monoclinic
Space group
:
I
2/a
|
---|
Unit cell
| a = 5.679(5), b = 15.202(14)
c = 6.522(6) A; β = 118.43°; Z = 4
|
---|
|
Color
| Colorless (in transmitted light) to white; often tinged other hues due to impurities; may be yellow, tan, blue, pink, dark brown, reddish brown or gray
|
---|
Crystal habit
| Massive, flat. Elongated and generally prismatic crystals
|
---|
Twinning
| Very common on {110}
|
---|
Cleavage
| Perfect on {010}, distinct on {100}
|
---|
Fracture
| Conchoidal on {100}, splintery parallel to [001]
|
---|
Tenacity
| Flexible, inelastic
|
---|
Mohs scale
hardness
| 1.5?2 (defining mineral for 2)
|
---|
Luster
| Vitreous to silky, pearly, or waxy
|
---|
Streak
| White
|
---|
Diaphaneity
| Transparent to translucent
|
---|
Specific gravity
| 2.31?2.33
|
---|
Optical properties
| Biaxial (+)
|
---|
Refractive index
| n
α
= 1.519?1.521
n
β
= 1.522?1.523
n
γ
= 1.529?1.530
|
---|
Birefringence
| δ = 0.010
|
---|
Pleochroism
| None
|
---|
2V angle
| 58°
|
---|
Fusibility
| 5
|
---|
Solubility
| Hot, dilute HCl
|
---|
References
| [2]
[3]
[4]
|
---|
|
Satin spar
| Pearly, fibrous masses
|
---|
Selenite
| Transparent and bladed crystals
|
---|
Alabaster
| Fine-grained, slightly colored
|
---|
Gypsum
is a soft
sulfate mineral
composed of
calcium sulfate
dihydrate
, with the
chemical formula
CaSO
4
·2H
2
O
.
[4]
It is widely mined and is used as a
fertilizer
and as the main constituent in many forms of
plaster
,
drywall
and
blackboard
or
sidewalk chalk
.
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Gypsum also
crystallizes
as translucent crystals of
selenite
. It forms as an
evaporite
mineral and as a
hydration
product of
anhydrite
. The
Mohs scale of mineral hardness
defines gypsum as hardness value 2 based on
scratch
hardness comparison
.
Fine-grained white or lightly tinted forms of gypsum known as
alabaster
have been used for
sculpture
by many cultures including
Ancient Egypt
,
Mesopotamia
,
Ancient Rome
, the
Byzantine Empire
, and the
Nottingham alabasters
of
Medieval England
.
Etymology and history
[
edit
]
The word
gypsum
is derived from the
Greek
word
γ?ψο?
(
gypsos
), "plaster".
[9]
Because the
quarries
of the
Montmartre
district of
Paris
have long furnished burnt gypsum (
calcined
gypsum) used for various purposes, this dehydrated gypsum became known as
plaster of Paris
. Upon adding water, after a few dozen minutes, plaster of Paris becomes regular gypsum (dihydrate) again, causing the material to harden or "set" in ways that are useful for casting and construction.
[10]
Gypsum was known in Old English as
spærst?n
, "spear stone", referring to its crystalline projections. Thus, the word
spar
in mineralogy, by comparison to gypsum, refers to any non-
ore
mineral or crystal that forms in spearlike projections. In the mid-18th century, the German clergyman and agriculturalist
Johann Friderich Mayer
investigated and publicized gypsum's use as a fertilizer.
[11]
Gypsum may act as a source of sulfur for plant growth, and in the early 19th century, it was regarded as an almost miraculous fertilizer. American farmers were so anxious to acquire it that a lively smuggling trade with Nova Scotia evolved, resulting in the so-called
"Plaster War"
of 1820.
[12]
Physical properties
[
edit
]
Gypsum crystals are soft enough to bend under pressure of the hand. Sample on display at Musee cantonal de geologie de Lausanne.
Gypsum is moderately water-soluble (~2.0?2.5 g/L at 25 °C)
[13]
and, in contrast to most other salts, it exhibits retrograde solubility, becoming less soluble at higher temperatures. When gypsum is heated in air it loses water and converts first to
calcium sulfate hemihydrate
(
bassanite
, often simply called "plaster") and, if heated further, to anhydrous
calcium sulfate
(
anhydrite
). As with
anhydrite
, the solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in
brines
is also strongly dependent on
NaCl
(common table salt) concentration.
[13]
The structure of gypsum consists of layers of calcium (Ca
2+
) and sulfate (
SO
2?
4
) ions tightly bound together. These layers are bonded by sheets of
anion water
molecules via weaker
hydrogen bonding
, which gives the crystal perfect cleavage along the sheets (in the {010} plane).
[4]
[14]
Crystal varieties
[
edit
]
Gypsum occurs in nature as flattened and often
twinned
crystals
, and transparent, cleavable masses called
selenite
. Selenite contains no significant
selenium
; rather, both substances were named for the ancient Greek word for the
Moon
.
Selenite may also occur in a silky, fibrous form, in which case it is commonly called "satin spar". Finally, it may also be granular or quite compact. In hand-sized samples, it can be anywhere from transparent to opaque. A very fine-grained white or lightly tinted variety of gypsum, called
alabaster
, is prized for ornamental work of various sorts. In arid areas, gypsum can occur in a flower-like form, typically opaque, with embedded sand grains called
desert rose
. It also forms some of the largest crystals found in nature, up to 12 m (39 ft) long, in the form of selenite.
[15]
Occurrence
[
edit
]
Gypsum is a common mineral, with thick and extensive
evaporite
beds in association with
sedimentary rocks
. Deposits are known to occur in
strata
from as far back as the
Archaean
eon
.
[16]
Gypsum is deposited from lake and sea water, as well as in
hot springs
, from
volcanic
vapors, and sulfate solutions in
veins
.
Hydrothermal
anhydrite
in veins is commonly hydrated to gypsum by groundwater in near-surface exposures. It is often associated with the minerals
halite
and
sulfur
. Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral.
[17]
Pure gypsum is white, but other substances found as impurities may give a wide range of colors to local deposits.
Because gypsum dissolves over time in water, gypsum is rarely found in the form of sand. However, the unique conditions of the
White Sands National Park
in the US state of
New Mexico
have created a 710 km
2
(270 sq mi) expanse of white gypsum sand, enough to supply the US construction industry with
drywall
for 1,000 years.
[18]
Commercial exploitation of the area, strongly opposed by area residents, was permanently prevented in 1933 when President
Herbert Hoover
declared the gypsum
dunes
a protected
national monument
.
Gypsum is also formed as a by-product of
sulfide
oxidation
, amongst others by
pyrite
oxidation
, when the
sulfuric acid
generated reacts with
calcium carbonate
. Its presence indicates oxidizing conditions. Under reducing conditions, the sulfates it contains can be reduced back to sulfide by
sulfate-reducing bacteria
. This can lead to accumulation of elemental sulfur in oil-bearing formations,
[19]
such as salt domes,
[20]
where it can be mined using the
Frasch process
[21]
Electric power stations burning coal with
flue gas desulfurization
produce large quantities of gypsum as a byproduct from the scrubbers.
Orbital pictures from the
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
(MRO) have indicated the existence of gypsum dunes in the northern polar region of Mars,
[22]
which were later confirmed at ground level by the
Mars Exploration Rover
(MER)
Opportunity
.
[23]
Mining
[
edit
]
Estimated production of Gypsum in 2015
(thousand metric tons)
[24]
Country
|
Production
|
Reserves
|
China
|
132,000
|
?
|
Iran
|
22,000
|
1,600
|
Thailand
|
12,500
|
?
|
United States
|
11,500
|
700,000
|
Turkey
|
10,000
|
?
|
Spain
|
6,400
|
?
|
Mexico
|
5,300
|
?
|
Japan
|
5,000
|
?
|
Russia
|
4,500
|
?
|
Italy
|
4,100
|
?
|
India
|
3,500
|
39,000
|
Australia
|
3,500
|
?
|
Oman
|
3,500
|
?
|
Brazil
|
3,300
|
290,000
|
France
|
3,300
|
?
|
Canada
|
2,700
|
450,000
|
Saudi Arabia
|
2,400
|
?
|
Algeria
|
2,200
|
?
|
Germany
|
1,800
|
450,000
|
Argentina
|
1,400
|
?
|
Pakistan
|
1,300
|
?
|
United Kingdom
|
1,200
|
55,000
|
Other countries
|
15,000
|
?
|
World total
|
258,000
|
?
|
Commercial quantities of gypsum are found in the cities of
Araripina
and
Grajau
in Brazil; in Pakistan, Jamaica, Iran (world's second largest producer), Thailand, Spain (the main producer in Europe), Germany, Italy, England, Ireland, Canada
[25]
and the United States. Large open pit quarries are located in many places including
Fort Dodge, Iowa
, which sits on one of the largest deposits of gypsum in the world,
[26]
and
Plaster City, California
, United States, and East
Kutai
,
Kalimantan
, Indonesia. Several small mines also exist in places such as
Kalannie
in
Western Australia
, where gypsum is sold to private buyers for additions of calcium and sulfur as well as reduction of aluminum toxicities on
soil
for agricultural purposes.
Crystals of gypsum up to 11 m (36 ft) long have been found in the caves of the
Naica Mine
of
Chihuahua
, Mexico. The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment. Temperatures stayed at 58 °C (136 °F), and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth. The largest of those crystals weighs 55 tonnes (61 short tons) and is around 500,000 years old.
[27]
Synthesis
[
edit
]
Synthetic
gypsum is produced as a waste product or by-product in a range of industrial processes.
Desulfurization
[
edit
]
Flue gas desulfurization
gypsum (FGDG) is recovered at some coal-fired power plants. The main contaminants are Mg, K, Cl, F, B, Al, Fe, Si, and Se. They come both from the limestone used in desulfurization and from the coal burned. This product is pure enough to replace natural gypsum in a wide variety of fields including drywalls, water treatment, and cement set retarder. Improvements in flue gas desulfurization have greatly reduced the amount of toxic elements present.
[28]
Desalination
[
edit
]
Gypsum precipitates onto brackish water
membranes
, a phenomenon known as mineral salt
scaling
, such as during
brackish
water
desalination
of water with high concentrations of
calcium
and
sulfate
. Scaling decreases membrane life and productivity.
[29]
This is one of the main obstacles in brackish water membrane desalination processes, such as
reverse osmosis
or
nanofiltration
. Other forms of scaling, such as
calcite
scaling, depending on the water source, can also be important considerations in
distillation
, as well as in
heat exchangers
, where either the salt
solubility
or
concentration
can change rapidly.
A new study has suggested that the formation of gypsum starts as tiny crystals of a mineral called
bassanite
(2CaSO
4
·H
2
O).
[30]
This process occurs via a three-stage pathway:
- homogeneous nucleation of nanocrystalline bassanite;
- self-assembly of bassanite into aggregates, and
- transformation of bassanite into gypsum.
Refinery waste
[
edit
]
The production of
phosphate
fertilizers requires breaking down calcium-containing
phosphate rock
with acid, producing calcium sulfate waste known as
phosphogypsum
(PG). This form of gypsum is contaminated by impurities found in the rock, namely
fluoride
,
silica
, radioactive elements such as
radium
, and heavy metal elements such as
cadmium
.
[31]
Similarly, production of
titanium dioxide
produces titanium gypsum (TG) due to neutralization of excess acid with
lime
. The product is contaminated with silica, fluorides, organic matters, and alkalis.
[32]
Impurities in refinery gypsum waste have, in many cases, prevented them from being used as normal gypsum in fields such as construction. As a result, waste gypsum is stored in stacks indefinitely, with significant risk of leaching their contaminants into water and soil.
[31]
To reduce the accumulation and ultimately clear out these stacks, research is underway to find more applications for such waste products.
[32]
Occupational safety
[
edit
]
People can be exposed to gypsum in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, and eye contact. Calcium sulfate
per se
is nontoxic and is even approved as a food additive,
[34]
but as powdered gypsum, it can irritate skin and mucous membranes.
[35]
United States
[
edit
]
The
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has set the legal limit (
permissible exposure limit
) for gypsum exposure in the workplace as TWA 15 mg/m
3
for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m
3
for respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday. The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has set a
recommended exposure limit
(REL) of TWA 10 mg/m
3
for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m
3
for respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday.
[35]
Uses
[
edit
]
Gypsum works,
Valencian Museum of Ethnology
Old
Alfarb
kiln for making plaster as a construction material
British Gypsum,
Kirkby Thore
Map of gypsum deposits in northern Ohio, black squares indicate the location of deposits, from
"Geography of Ohio"
, 1923
Gypsum is used in a wide variety of applications:
Construction industry
[
edit
]
- Gypsum board
[36]
is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings, and is known in construction as plasterboard, "sheetrock", or drywall. Gypsum provides a degree of fire-resistance to these materials and glass fibers are added to their composition to accentuate this effect. Gypsum has little heat conductivity, giving its plaster some insulative properties.
[37]
- Gypsum blocks
are used like concrete blocks in building construction.
- Gypsum mortar
is an ancient mortar used in building construction.
- A component of
Portland cement
used to prevent flash setting (too rapid hardening) of
concrete
.
- A wood substitute in the ancient world: For example, when wood became scarce due to deforestation on
Bronze Age
Crete
, gypsum was employed in building construction at locations where wood was previously used.
[38]
Agriculture
[
edit
]
Modeling, sculpture and art
[
edit
]
- Plaster
for casting moulds and modeling.
- As
alabaster
, a material for sculpture, it was used especially in the ancient world before steel was developed, when its relative softness made it much easier to carve.
[45]
During the
Middle Ages
and
Renaissance
, it was preferred even to
marble
.
[46]
- In the medieval period,
scribes
and
illuminators
used it as an ingredient in
gesso
, which was applied to illuminated letters and gilded with gold in illuminated manuscripts.
[47]
Food and drink
[
edit
]
- A
tofu
(soy bean curd) coagulant, making it ultimately a significant source of dietary
calcium
.
[48]
- Adding
hardness
to water used for
brewing
.
[49]
- Used in baking as a dough conditioner, reducing stickiness, and as a baked-goods source of dietary calcium.
[50]
The primary component of mineral yeast food.
[51]
- Used in mushroom cultivation to stop grains from clumping together.
Medicine and cosmetics
[
edit
]
Other
[
edit
]
- An alternative to iron oxide in some thermite mixes.
[54]
- Tests have shown that gypsum can be used to remove pollutants such as
lead
[55]
or
arsenic
[56]
[57]
from contaminated waters.
Gallery
[
edit
]
- Unusual gypsum specimens from around the world
-
Green gypsum crystals from Pernatty Lagoon, Mt Gunson,
South Australia
- its green color is due to presence of
copper
ions.
-
Unusual selenite gypsum from the
Red River
, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
-
Classic "ram's horn" gypsum from
Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua
, Mexico, 7.5×4.3×3.8 cm
-
-
Gypsum from Pernatty Lagoon, Mt Gunson, Stuart Shelf area, Andamooka Ranges - Lake Torrens area, South Australia, Australia
-
Gypsum with crystalline
native copper
inside
-
Gypsum from Swan Hill, Victoria, Australia. The coloring is due to the copper oxide
-
Waterclear twined crystal of the form known as "Roman sword". Fuentes de Ebro, Zaragoza (Spain)
-
Bright, cherry-red gypsum crystals 2.5 cm in height colored by rich inclusions of the rare mineral
botryogen
-
Gypsum from Naica, Mun. de Saucillo, Chihuahua, Mexico
-
Golden color gem, "fishtail"-twinned crystals of gypsum sitting atop a "ball" of gypsum which is composed of several single bladed crystals
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Warr, L.N. (2021).
"IMA?CNMNC approved mineral symbols"
.
Mineralogical Magazine
.
85
(3): 291?320.
Bibcode
:
2021MinM...85..291W
.
doi
:
10.1180/mgm.2021.43
.
S2CID
235729616
.
- ^
Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C., eds. (2003).
"Gypsum"
(PDF)
.
Handbook of Mineralogy
. Vol. V (Borates, Carbonates, Sulfates). Chantilly, VA, US: Mineralogical Society of America.
ISBN
978-0962209703
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 February 2006.
- ^
Gypsum
. Mindat
- ^
a
b
c
Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. (1985),
Manual of Mineralogy
(20th ed.), John Wiley, pp.
352?353
,
ISBN
978-0-471-80580-9
- ^
Institute, Canadian Conservation (14 September 2017).
"Care of Objects Made of Plaster of Paris ? Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 12/2"
.
www.canada.ca
. Retrieved
20 January
2023
.
- ^
Make your own sidewalk chalk. (1998, July 21). Christian Science Monitor. 13.
- ^
"Plaster | Definition, Uses, Types, & Facts | Britannica"
.
www.britannica.com
. Retrieved
20 January
2023
.
- ^
"Definition of DRYWALL"
.
www.merriam-webster.com
. Retrieved
20 January
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.
- ^
"Compact Oxford English Dictionary: gypsum"
. Archived from
the original
on 19 July 2012.
- ^
Szostakowski, B.; Smitham, P.; Khan, W.S. (17 April 2017).
"Plaster of Paris?Short History of Casting and Injured Limb Immobilzation"
.
The Open Orthopaedics Journal
.
11
: 291?296.
doi
:
10.2174/1874325001711010291
.
ISSN
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.
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PMID
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- ^
See:
- Thaer, Albrecht Daniel (1844).
The Principles of Agriculture
. Vol. 1. Translated by Shaw, William; Johnson, Cuthbert W. London, England: Ridgway. pp. 519?520.
- Klaus Herrmann (1990),
"Mayer, Johann Friedrich"
,
Neue Deutsche Biographie
(in German), vol. 16, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 544?545
; (
full text online
) From p. 544:
" … er bewirtschaftete nebenbei ein Pfarrguttchen, … fur die Dungung der Felder mit dem in den nahen Waldenburger Bergen gefundenen Gips einsetzte."
( … he also managed a small parson's estate, on which he repeatedly conducted agricultural experiments. In 1768, he first published the fruits of his experiences during this time as "Instruction about Gypsum", in which he espoused the fertilizing of fields with the gypsum that was found in the nearby Waldenburg mountains.)
- Beckmann, Johann (1775).
Grundsatze der deutschen Landwirthschaft
[
Fundamentals of German Agriculture
] (in German) (2nd ed.). Gottingen, (Germany): Johann Christian Dieterich. p. 60.
From p. 60:
"Schon seit undenklichen Zeiten … ein Gewinn zu erhalten seyn wird."
(Since times immemorial, in our vicinity, in the ministry of Niedeck [a village southeast of Gottingen], one has already made this use of gypsum; but Mr. Mayer has the merit to have made it generally known. In the
History of Farming in Kupferzell
, he had depicted a crushing mill (p. 74), in order to pulverize gypsum, from which a profit has been obtained, albeit with difficulty.)
- Mayer, Johann Friderich (1768).
Lehre vom Gyps als vorzueglich guten Dung zu allen Erd-Gewaechsen auf Aeckern und Wiesen, Hopfen- und Weinbergen
[
Instruction in gypsum as an ideal good manure for all things grown in soil on fields and pastures, hops yards and vineyards
] (in German). Anspach, (Germany): Jacob Christoph Posch.
- ^
Smith, Joshua (2007).
Borderland smuggling: Patriots, loyalists, and illicit trade in the Northeast, 1780?1820
. Gainesville, FL: UPF. pp. passim.
ISBN
978-0-8130-2986-3
.
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a
b
Bock, E. (1961).
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.
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.
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doi
:
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.
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4
·2H
2
O) and hemihydrate (CaSO
4
·1/2H
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O)".
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.
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(PDF)
.
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.
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.
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:
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.
Archived
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.
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:
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.
doi
:
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.
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.
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.
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. London: Longman. p. 469.
ISBN
978-0-582-44210-8
.
- ^
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.
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. Archived from
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. Retrieved
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.
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:
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.
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.
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Sassen, Roger; Chinn, E.W.; McCabe, C. (December 1988). "Recent hydrocarbon alteration, sulfate reduction and formation of elemental sulfur and metal sulfides in salt dome cap rock".
Chemical Geology
.
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(1?2): 57?66.
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:
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.
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:
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.
- ^
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. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
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:
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.
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- ^
High-resolution Mars image gallery
. University of Arizona
- ^
NASA Mars Rover Finds Mineral Vein Deposited by Water
, NASA, 7 December 2011.
- ^
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