Indigenous language, Paraguay variant
This article is about the Paraguayan language. For other varieties of Guarani, see
Guarani dialects
.
Maria speaking Jopara
Books in Guarani
Guarani
(
GWAR
-?-
NEE
,
GWAR
-?-nee
),
[3]
specifically the primary variety known as
Paraguayan Guarani
(
avane
'
?
[?a?a?????]
"the people's language"), is a
South American
language that belongs to the
Tupi?Guarani
branch
[4]
of the
Tupian language family
. It is one of the official languages of
Paraguay
(along with
Spanish
), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population are monolingual speakers of the language.
[5]
[6]
Variants of the language are spoken by communities in neighboring countries including parts of northeastern
Argentina
, southeastern
Bolivia
and southwestern
Brazil
, and is a second official language of the
Argentine province
of
Corrientes
since 2004.
[7]
[8]
Guarani is also one of the three official languages of
Mercosur
, alongside Spanish and
Portuguese
.
[9]
Guarani is the most widely spoken
Native American language
and remains commonly used among the Paraguayan people and neighboring communities. This is unique among American languages;
language shift
towards European colonial languages (in this case, the other
official language
of
Spanish
) has otherwise been a nearly universal phenomenon in the
Western Hemisphere
, but Paraguayans have maintained their traditional language at the same time as Spanish has been adopted.
Jesuit
priest
Antonio Ruiz de Montoya
, who in 1639 published the first written grammar of Guarani in a book called
Tesoro de la lengua guarani
(Treasure/
Thesaurus
of the Guarani Language)
[a]
, described it as a language "so copious and elegant that it can compete with the most famous [of languages]".
[10]
The name "Guarani" is generally used for the official language of Paraguay. However, this is part of a
dialect chain
, most of whose
components
are also often called Guarani.
History
[
edit
]
While Guarani, in its
Classical form
, was the only language spoken in the expansive missionary territories, Paraguayan Guarani has its roots outside of the
Jesuit Reductions
.
Modern scholarship has shown that Guarani was always the primary language of colonial Paraguay, both inside and outside the reductions. Following the
expulsion of the Jesuits
in the 18th century, the residents of the reductions gradually migrated north and west towards
Asuncion
, a demographic shift that brought about a decidedly one-sided shift away from the Jesuit dialect that the missionaries had curated in the southern and eastern territories of the colony.
[11]
[12]
By and large, the Guarani of the Jesuits shied away from direct phonological loans from Spanish. Instead, the missionaries relied on the agglutinative nature of the language to formulate new precise translations or
calque
terms from Guarani morphemes. This process often led the Jesuits to employ complicated, highly synthetic terms to convey European concepts.
[13]
By contrast, the Guarani spoken outside of the missions was characterized by a free, unregulated flow of Hispanicisms; frequently, Spanish words and phrases were simply incorporated into Guarani with minimal phonological adaptation.
A good example of that phenomenon is found in the word "communion". The Jesuits, using their agglutinative strategy, rendered this word "
Tuparahava
", a calque based on the word "
Tupa
", meaning God.
[14]
In modern Paraguayan Guarani, the same word is rendered "
komuno
".
[15]
Following the out-migration from the reductions, these two distinct dialects of Guarani came into extensive
contact
for the first time. The vast majority of speakers abandoned the less colloquial, highly regulated Jesuit variant in favor of the variety that evolved from actual use by speakers in Paraguay.
[16]
This contemporary form of spoken Guarani is known as
Jopara
, meaning "mixture" in Guarani.
Political status
[
edit
]
A government sign in
Asuncion
, Paraguay; bilingual in Guarani and Spanish
Widely spoken, Paraguayan Guarani has nevertheless been repressed by Paraguayan governments throughout most of its history since independence. It was prohibited in state schools for over 100 years. However, populists often used pride in the language to excite nationalistic fervor and promote a narrative of social unity.
During the autocratic regime of
Alfredo Stroessner
, his Colorado Party used the language to appeal to common Paraguayans although Stroessner himself never gave an address in Guarani.
[17]
Upon
the advent of Paraguayan democracy
in 1992, Guarani was established in the new constitution as a language equal to Spanish.
[6]
Jopara, the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay.
Code-switching
between the two languages takes place on a spectrum in which more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, and more Guarani is used in art and in everyday life.
[18]
Guarani is also an official language of Bolivia and of
Corrientes Province
in Argentina.
Writing system
[
edit
]
The
Lord's Prayer
in Guarani in the
Church of the Pater Noster
in
Jerusalem
Guarani became a written language relatively recently. Its modern alphabet is basically a subset of the
Latin script
(with "J", "K" and "Y" but not "W"), complemented with two diacritics and six
digraphs
. Its
orthography
is largely
phonemic
, with letter values mostly similar to those of
Spanish
. The
tilde
is used with many letters that are considered part of the alphabet. In the case of
N/n
, it differentiates the palatal nasal from the alveolar nasal (as in Spanish), whereas it marks stressed
nasalisation
when used over a vowel (as in
Portuguese
):
a, ?, ?, o, ?, ?
. (Nasal vowels have been written with several other diacritics:
a, ?, a, a
.) The tilde also marks nasality in the case of
G?/g?
, used to represent the nasalized velar approximant by combining the
velar approximant
G
with the
nasalising
tilde
. The letter
G?/g?
, which is unique to this language, was introduced into the orthography relatively recently during the mid-20th century and there is disagreement over its use. It is not a
precomposed character
in
Unicode
, which can cause typographic inconveniences ? such as needing to press "delete" twice in some setups ? or imperfect rendering when using computers and fonts that do not properly support the complex layout feature of glyph composition.
Only stressed nasal vowels are written as nasal. If an oral vowel is stressed, and it is not the final syllable, it is marked with an acute accent:
a, e, i, o, u, y
. That is, stress falls on the vowel marked as nasalized, if any, else on the accent-marked syllable, and if neither appears, then on the final syllable.
Guarani Braille
is the
braille
alphabet used for
blind
speakers of Guarani.
Phonology
[
edit
]
Guarani syllables consist of a consonant plus a vowel or a vowel alone; syllables ending in a consonant or two or more consonants together do not occur. This is represented as
(C)V
.
In the below table, the IPA value is shown. The orthography is shown in angle brackets below, if different.
Consonants
[
edit
]
The
voiced
consonants have oral
allophones
(left) before oral vowels, and
nasal
allophones (right) before
nasal vowels
. The oral allophones of the voiced stops are
prenasalized
.
There is also a sequence
/ⁿt/
(written
⟨nt⟩
). A trill
/r/
(written
⟨rr⟩
), and the consonants
/l/
,
/f/
, and
/j/
(written
⟨ll⟩
) are not native to Guarani, but come from Spanish.
Oral
/?j/
is often pronounced
[
d?
]
,
[
?
]
,
[
?
]
,
[
j
]
, depending on the dialect, but the nasal allophone is always
[
?
]
.
The dorsal fricative is in free variation between
[
x
]
and
[
h
]
.
⟨g⟩
,
⟨gu⟩
are approximants, not fricatives, but are sometimes transcribed
[
?
]
,
[
??
]
, as is conventional for Spanish.
⟨gu⟩
is also transcribed
[??]
, which is essentially identical to
[
w
]
.
All syllables are open, viz. CV or V, ending in a vowel.
Glottal stop
[
edit
]
The
glottal stop
, called
puso
in Guarani, is only written between vowels, but occurs phonetically before vowel-initial words. Because of this, some words have several glottal stops near each other that consequently undergo a number of different
dissimilation
techniques. For example, "I drink water"
'
a
'
y
'
u
is pronounced
hay
'
u
. This suggests that irregularity in verb forms derives from regular sound change processes in the history of Guarani. There also seems to be some degree of variation between how much the glottal stop is dropped (for example
aru
'
uka > aruuka > aruka
for "I bring"). It is possible that word-internal glottal stops may have been retained from fossilized compounds where the second component was a vowel-initial (and therefore glottal stop?initial) root.
[20]
Vowels
[
edit
]
/a/,
/e/,
/i/,
/o/,
/u/
correspond more or less to the Spanish and IPA equivalents, although sometimes the open-mid allophones
[
?
]
,
[
?
]
are used more frequently. The grapheme
⟨y⟩
represents the vowel
/
?
/
. Considering nasality, the vowel system is perfectly symmetrical, each oral vowel having its nasal counterpart (most systems with nasals have fewer nasals than orals).
Nasal harmony
[
edit
]
Guarani displays an unusual degree of
nasal harmony
. A nasal syllable consists of a nasal vowel, and if the consonant is voiced, it takes its nasal allophone. If a stressed syllable is nasal, the nasality spreads in
both
directions until it bumps up against a stressed syllable that is oral. This includes
affixes
,
postpositions
, and compounding. Voiceless consonants do not have nasal allophones, but they do not interrupt the spread of nasality.
For example,
- /ⁿdo+?oi+ⁿdu?pa+i/
→
[no??o?n??pa?]
- /ro+?bo+po?ra/
→
[??omopo???a]
However, a second stressed syllable, with an oral vowel, will not become nasalized:
- /i?ja?ka?a?ku/
→
[???a?ka??a?ku]
- /a?ka?a?we/
→
[?a?ka??a?we]
[21]
That is, for a word with a single stressed vowel, all voiced segments will be either oral or nasal, while voiceless consonants are unaffected, as in oral
/?bot?/
vs nasal
/mot??/
.
Grammar
[
edit
]
Guarani is a highly
agglutinative language
, often classified as
polysynthetic
. It is a fluid-S type
active language
, and it has been classified as a 6th class language in
Milewski's typology
. It uses
subject?verb?object
(SVO) word order usually, but
object?verb
when the subject is not specified.
[22]
The language lacks
gender
and has no native
definite article
but, due to influence from Spanish,
la
is used as a definite article for singular reference and
lo
for plural reference. These are not found in Classical Guarani (
Guaraniete
).
Nouns
[
edit
]
Guarani exhibits nominal tense: past, expressed with
-kue
, and future, expressed with
-ra
. For example,
teta ruvichakue
translates to "ex-president" while
teta ruvichara
translates to "president-elect." The past morpheme
-kue
is often translated as "ex-", "former", "abandoned", "what was once", or "one-time". These morphemes can even be combined to express the idea of something that was going to be but did not end up happening. So for example,
pa
'
irague
is "a person who studied to be a priest but didn't actually finish", or rather, "the ex-future priest". Some nouns use
-re
instead of
-kue
and others use
-gua
instead of
-ra
.
[23]
Pronouns
[
edit
]
Guarani distinguishes between
inclusive and exclusive
pronouns of the first person plural.
|
singular
|
plural
|
1st person
|
inclusive
|
che
|
nande
|
exclusive
|
ore
|
2nd person
|
nde
|
pe?
|
3rd person
|
ha
'
e
|
ha
'
ekuera/ hikuai
[i]
|
- ^
hikuai
is a post-verbal pronoun (
oHecha hikuai
'they see')
Reflexive pronoun:
je
:
ahecha
("I look"),
ajehecha
("I look at myself")
Conjugation
[
edit
]
Guarani stems can be divided into a number of conjugation classes, which are called
areal
(with the subclass
aireal
) and
chendal
. The names for these classes stem from the names of the prefixes for 1st and 2nd person singular.
The
areal
conjugation is used to convey that the participant is
actively involved
, whereas the
chendal
conjugation is used to convey that the participant is the
undergoer
. However, the
areal
conjugation is also used if an intransitive verb expresses
an event as opposed to a state
, for example
mano
'die', and even with a verb such as
ke
'sleep'. In addition, all borrowed Spanish verbs are adopted as
areal
as opposed to borrowed adjectives, which take
chendal
.
[24]
Intransitive verbs can take either conjugation, transitive verbs normally take
areal
, but can take
chendal
for
habitual
readings. Nouns can also be conjugated, but only as
chendal
. This conveys a predicative possessive reading.
[25]
Furthermore, the conjugations vary slightly according to the stem being oral or nasal.
pronoun
|
areal
|
aireal
|
chendal
|
oral
|
nasal
|
guata
'
to walk
'
|
ne
'
?
'
to speak
'
|
puru
'
to use
'
|
tuicha
'
to be big
'
|
che
|
a
-guata
|
a
-ne
'
?
|
ai
-puru
|
che
-tuicha
|
nande
|
ja
-guata
|
na
-ne
'
?
|
jai
-puru
|
nande
-tuicha
|
ore
|
ro
-guata
|
ro
-ne
'
?
|
roi
-puru
|
ore
-tuicha
|
nde
|
re
-guata
|
re
-ne
'
?
|
rei
-puru
|
nde
-tuicha
|
pe?
|
pe
-guata
|
pe
-ne
'
?
|
pei
-puru
|
pende
-tuicha
|
ha
'
e(kuera)
|
o
-guata
|
o
-ne
'
?
|
oi
-puru
|
i
-tuicha
|
Negation
[
edit
]
Negation is indicated by a
circumfix
n(d)(V)-...-(r)i
in Guarani. The preverbal portion of the circumfix is
nd-
for oral bases and
n-
for nasal bases. For 2nd person singular, an
epenthetic
-e-
is inserted before the base, for 1st person plural inclusive, an epenthetic
-a-
is inserted.
The postverbal portion is
-ri
for bases ending in
-i
, and
-i
for all others. However, in spoken Guarani, the
-ri
portion of the circumfix is frequently omitted for bases ending in
-i
.
Oral verb
|
Nasal verb
|
With ending in "i"
|
japo
'
do, make
'
|
kororo
'
roar, snore
'
|
jupi
'
go up, rise
'
|
nd-ajapo-i
|
n-akororo-i
|
nd-ajupi-ri
|
nde-rejapo-i
|
ne-rekororo-i
|
nde-rejupi-ri
|
nd-ojapo-i
|
n-okororo-i
|
nd-ojupi-ri
|
nda-jajapo-i
|
na-nakororo-i
|
nda-jajupi-ri
|
nd-orojapo-i
|
n-orokororo-i
|
nd-orojupi-ri
|
nda-pejapo-i
|
na-pekororo-i
|
nda-pejupi-ri
|
nd-ojapo-i
|
n-okororo-i
|
nd-ojupi-ri
|
The negation can be used in all tenses, but for future or irrealis reference, the normal tense marking is replaced by
mo
'
a
, resulting in
n(d)(V)
-base-
mo
'
a-i
as in
Ndajapomo
'
ai
, "I won't do it".
There are also other negatives, such as:
ani
,
?h?
,
nahaniri
,
naumbre
,
na
'
anga
.
Tense and aspect morphemes
[
edit
]
- -ramo
: marks extreme proximity of the action, often translating to "just barely":
Oguah?ramo
, "He just barely arrived".
[26]
: 198
- -kuri
: marks proximity of the action.
Ha
'
ukuri
, "I just ate" (
ha'u
irregular first person singular form of
u
, "to eat"). It can also be used after a pronoun, as in
ha che kuri, che po
'
a
, "and about what happened to me, I was lucky".
- -va
'
ekue
: indicates a fact that occurred long ago and asserts that it's really truth.
Okanyva
'
ekue
, "he/she went missing a long time ago".
- -ra
'
e
: tells that the speaker was doubtful before but he's sure at the moment he speaks.
Nde rejoguara
'
e pete? ta
'
angambyry pyahu
, "so then you bought a new television after all".
- -raka
'
e
: expresses the uncertainty of a perfect-aspect fact.
Pe? peikoraka
'
e Asuncion-pe
, "I think you lived in Asuncion for a while". Nevertheless, nowadays this morpheme has lost some of its meaning, having a correspondence with
ra
'
e
and
va
'
ekue
.
The verb form without suffixes at all is a
present
somewhat
aorist
:
Upe ara res? reho mombyry
, "that day you got out and you went far".
- -ta
: is a
future
of immediate happening, it's also used as authoritarian
imperative
.
Oujeyta ag?aite
, "he/she'll come back soon".
- -ma
: has the meaning of "already".
Ajapoma
, "I already did it".
These two suffixes can be added together:
ahatama
, "I'm already going".
- -va
'
era
: indicates something not imminent or something that must be done for social or moral reasons, in this case corresponding to the
German
modal verb
sollen
.
Pea ojejapova
'
era
, "that must be done".
- -ne
: indicates something that probably will happen or something the speaker imagines that is happening. It correlates in a certain way with the
subjunctive
of
Spanish
.
Mitanguera ag?a og?uahene hogape
, "the children are probably coming home now".
- -hina
,
-ina
after nasal words: continual action at the moment of speaking, present and pluperfect continuous or emphatic.
Rojatapyhina
, "we're making fire";
che ha
'
ehina
, "it's ME!".
- -vo
: it has a subtle difference with
-hina
in which
-vo
indicates not necessarily what's being done at the moment of speaking.
amba
'
apovo
, "I'm working (not necessarily now)".
- -pota
: indicates proximity immediately before the start of the process.
Ajukapota
, "I'm near the point at which I will start to kill" or "I'm just about to kill". (A particular sandhi rule is applied here: if the verbs ends in
-po
, the suffix changes to
-mbota
;
ajapombota
, "I'll do it right now").
- -pa
: indicates emphatically that a process has all finished.
Amboparapa pe ogyke
, "I painted the wall completely".
This suffix can be joined with
-ma
, making up
-pama
:
nande jaikuaapama nde remimo
'
a
, "now we came to know all your thought".
- -mi
: customary action in the past:
Oumi
, "He used to come a lot".
These are unstressed suffixes:
-ta, -ma, -ne, -vo, -mi
; so the stress goes upon the last syllable of the verb or the last stressed syllable.
Other verbal morphemes
[
edit
]
- -se
: desiderative suffix:
(Che) anemoaranduse
, "I want to study".
[27]
- te-
: desiderative prefix:
Ahasa
, "I pass",
Tahasa
, "I would like to pass."
te-
is the underlying form. It is similar to the negative in that it has the same vowel alternations and deletions, depending on the person marker on the verb.
[26]
: 108
Determiners
[
edit
]
Guarani
|
English
|
Spanish
|
1 ? Demonstratives:
|
(a) With near objects and entities (you see it)
|
ko
|
this
|
este, esta
|
upe/pe
|
that
|
ese, esa
|
amo
|
that/yonder
|
aquel, aquella
|
pete?-te? (+/- va)
|
each
|
cada uno
|
ko
'
a, a, aa
|
these
|
estos, estas
|
umi
|
those
|
esos, esas, aquellos, aquellas
|
(b) Indefinite, with far objects and entities (you do not see it -remembering demonstratives):
|
ku
|
that (singular)
|
aquel, aquella
|
akoi
|
those (plural)
|
aquellos, aquellas
|
(c) Other usual demonstratives determiners:
|
opa
|
all
|
todo, toda, todos, todas
(with all entities)
|
mayma
|
all
|
todos, todas
(with people)
|
mbovy-
|
some, a few, determinate
|
unos, unas
|
heta
|
a lot of, very much
|
muchos, muchas
|
ambue (+/- kuera)
|
other
|
otros, otras
|
ambue
|
another
|
otro, otra
|
ambueve:
|
The other
|
el otro, la otra
|
ambueve
|
other, another
|
otro, otros, (enfatico) ?
|
oimera?
|
either
|
cualquiera
|
moko?ve
|
both
|
ambos, ambas
|
ni pete? (+/- ve)
|
neither
|
ni el uno ni el otro
|
Spanish loans in Guarani
[
edit
]
The close and prolonged contact Spanish and Guarani have experienced has resulted in many Guarani words of Spanish origin. Many of these loans were for things or concepts unknown to the
New World
prior to
Spanish colonization
. Examples are seen below:
[28]
Semantic category
|
Spanish
|
Guarani
|
English
|
Orthography
|
IPA
|
Orthography
|
IPA
|
animals
|
vaca
|
/baka/
|
vaka
|
/?aka/
|
cow
|
caballo
|
/kaba?o/
|
kavaju
|
/ka?a?ju/
|
horse
|
cabra
|
/kab?a/
|
kavara
|
/ka?a?a/
|
goat
|
religion
|
cruz
|
/k?uθ/
|
kurusu
|
/ku?usu/
|
cross
|
Jesucristo
|
/xesuk?isto/
|
Hesukristo
|
/xesu?k?isto/
|
Jesus Christ
|
Pablo
|
/pablo/
|
Pavlo
|
/pa?lo/
|
Paul (saint)
|
place names
|
Australia
|
/aust?alia/
|
Autaralia
|
/auta?alia/
|
Australia
|
Islandia
|
/islandia/
|
Iylanda
|
/i?laⁿda/
|
Iceland
|
Portugal
|
/po?tugal/
|
Poytuga
|
/po?tu?a/
|
Portugal
|
foods
|
queso
|
/keso/
|
kesu
|
/kesu/
|
cheese
|
azucar
|
/aθuka?/
|
asuka
|
/asuka/
|
sugar
|
morcilla
|
/mo?θi?a/
|
mbusia
|
/?busia/
|
blood sausage
|
herbs/spices
|
canela
|
/kanela/
|
kanela
|
/ka?nela/
|
cinnamon
|
culantro
|
/kulant?o/
|
kurat?
|
/k???at?/
|
cilantro (US), coriander (UK)
|
anis
|
/a?nis/
|
ani
|
/ani/
|
anise
|
Guarani loans in English
[
edit
]
English has adopted a small number of words from Guarani (or perhaps the related
Tupi
) via Portuguese, mostly the names of animals or plants. "
Jaguar
" comes from
jaguarete
and "
pirana
" comes from
pira ana
("tooth fish" Tupi:
pira
'fish',
ana
'tooth'). Other words are: "
agouti
" from
akuti
, "
tapir
" from
tapira
, "
acai
" from
?wasa
'
i
("[fruit that] cries or expels water"), "
warrah
" from
aguara
meaning "fox", "
margay
" from
mbarakaja'y
meaning "small cat" and "
common water boa
" from
mboi
meaning "snake".
[
citation needed
]
Jacaranda
,
guarana
and
mandioca
are words of Guarani or Tupi?Guarani origin.
[29]
Ipecacuanha
(the name of a medicinal drug) comes from a homonymous Tupi?Guarani name that can be rendered as
ipe-ka'a-guene
, meaning a creeping plant that makes one vomit.
[30]
[
failed verification
]
The name of Paraguay is itself a Guarani word, as is the name of
Uruguay
. However, the exact meaning of either placename is up to varied interpretations. (
See
:
List of country-name etymologies
.)
[
citation needed
]
"
Cougar
" is borrowed from the archaic Portuguese cucuarana; the term was either originally derived from the
Tupi language
susua
'
rana
, meaning "similar to deer (in hair color)" or from the Guarani language term
guasu ara
.
[
citation needed
]
Puma
instead comes from the Peruvian
Quechua language
.
[
citation needed
]
Example text
[
edit
]
Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in Guarani:
- Mayma yvypora ou ko yvy ari inapyty
'
yre ha ete?cha tekoruvicharenda ha akatuape jeguerekope; ha ikatu rupi oikuaa aneteva ha anete
'
yva, iporava ha ivaiva, tekotev? pehengueicha oiko onondivekuera.
[31]
- [ma??ma
????po?a
o?u
ko
????
?a?i
i?ap?t?????e
xa
?t????a
teko?u?i?a?e?ⁿda
xa
aka?tuape
?jewe?e?kope;
xa
ika?tu
?upi
oikua?a
a?e?te?a
xa
a?ete????a,
?po???a?a
xa
i?a?i?a
t?kot????
pexe??g?ei?a
oi?ko
o?oⁿdi?e?k?e?a]
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
[32]
Literature
[
edit
]
The New Testament was translated from Greek into Guarani by Dr John William Lindsay (1875?1946), who was a Scottish medical missionary based in Belen, Paraguay. The New Testament was printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1913. It is believed to be the first New Testament translated into any South American indigenous language.
A more modern translation of the whole
Bible
into Guarani is known as
Nandejara Ne
'
?
.
[33]
In 2019, Jehovah's Witnesses released the
New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures
in Guarani,
[34]
[35]
both in print and online.
[36]
Recently a series of novels in Guarani have been published:
Institutions
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The Spanish word
tesoro
means both "treasure" and "thesaurus", and makes this title a double entendre. The English word "treasure" is cognate with "thesaurus" and is also cognate with the Spanish word
tesoro
. These words all descend from the Ancient Greek word
th?sauros
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
Sources
[
edit
]
- ^
Guarani
at
Ethnologue
(24th ed., 2021)
- ^
Muturzikin (2008).
"Paraguai"
. muturzikin.com.
- ^
Wells, John C.
(2008).
Longman Pronunciation Dictionary
(3rd ed.). Longman.
ISBN
978-1-4058-8118-0
.
- ^
Britton, A. Scott (2004).
Guarani-English/English-Guarani Concise Dictionary
. New York:
Hippocrene Books
.
- ^
Mortimer, K (2006). "Guarani Academico or Jopara? Educator Perspectives and Ideological Debate in Paraguayan Bilingual Education".
Working Papers in Educational Linguistics
.
21
(2): 45?71.
- ^
a
b
Romero, Simon (12 March 2012).
"In Paraguay, Indigenous Language With Unique Staying Power"
.
The New York Times
. Asuncion. Archived from
the original
on 12 March 2012.
- ^
"Ley Provincial Nº 5.598, que establece el guarani como 'idioma oficial alternativo' de Corrientes"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 29 February 2012
. Retrieved
22 May
2008
.
- ^
"Antecedentes sobre la poblacion nativa de las Americas"
.
Centro de Documentacion Mapuche
(in Spanish). Archived from
the original
on 27 October 2005.
- ^
"Incorporacion del Guarani como Idioma del Mercosur"
.
MERCOSUR official page
(in Spanish). Archived from
the original
on 25 December 2013.
- ^
Montoya, Antonio Ruiz de.
Tesoro de la lengua guarani
. A LOS PADRES RELIGIOSOS "
Dio finalmente fin a e?te trabajo el tiempo de treinta anos que he ga?tado entre Gentiles, y con eficaz e?tudio ra?treado lengua tan copio?a, y elegante, que con razon puede competir con las de fama.
"
- ^
Wilde, Guillermo (2001). "Los guaranies despues de la expulsion de los jesuitas: dinamicas politicas y transacciones simbolicas" [The Guarani after the expulsion of the Jesuits: political dynamics and symbolic transactions].
Revista Complutense de Historia de America
(in Spanish).
27
: 69?106.
- ^
Telesca, Ignacio (2009).
Tras los expulsos: cambios demograficos y territoriales en el paraguay despues de la expulsion de los jesuitas
. Asuncion: Universidad Catolica "Nuestra Senora De La Asuncion".
- ^
Thun, Harald (2008). "La hispanizacion del guarani jesuitico en 'lo espiritual' y en 'lo temporal'. Segunda parte: Los procedimientos". In Dietrich, Wolf; Symeonidis, Haralambos (eds.).
Geschichte und Aktualitat der deutschprachigen Guarani-Philologie
. Berlin: Lit Verlag. pp. 141?169.
- ^
Restivo, Paulo (1724).
Vocabulario de la lengua guarani
(in Spanish). Madrid.
- ^
Guarania, Felix (2008).
Nande Ayvu Tenonde Porangue'i: Nuevo diccionario guarani?-castellano, castellano-guarani?: Avane'?-karaine'?, Karaine'?-avane'?
. Asuncion: Servilibro.
- ^
Melia, Bartomeu (2003).
La lengua guarani? en el Paraguay colonial
(in Spanish). Asuncion: CEPAG.
ISBN
9789992584958
.
- ^
Nickson, Robert Andrew (2009). "Governance and the Revitalization of the Guarani Language in Paraguay".
Latin American Research Review
.
44
(3): 3?26.
doi
:
10.1353/lar.0.0115
.
JSTOR
40783668
.
S2CID
144250960
.
- ^
Page, Nathan (6 September 1999).
"Guarani: The Language and People"
.
Brigham Young University
Department of Linguistics
. Retrieved
1 February
2019
.
- ^
"Phonological inventory of Paraguayan Guarani"
. South American Phonological Inventory Database.
Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
. 1.1.4. Michael, Lev, Tammy Stark, Emily Clem, and Will Chang (compilers). Berkeley: University of California. 2015.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: others (
link
)
- ^
Ayala, Jose Valentin (2000).
Gramatica Guarani
. Asuncion: Centro Editorial Paraguayo S.R.L. p. 19.
OCLC
50608420
.
- ^
Walker, Rachel (2000).
Nasalization, neutral segments, and opacity effects
. Psychology Press. p. 210.
ISBN
9780815338369
.
- ^
Tonhauser, Judith
; Colijn, Erika (2010). "Word Order in Paraguayan Guarani".
International Journal of American Linguistics
.
76
(2): 255?288.
doi
:
10.1086/652267
.
S2CID
73554080
.
- ^
Guasch, P. Antonio (1956).
El Idioma Guarnai: Gramatica e Antologia de Prosa y Verso
. Asuncion: Casa America. p. 53.
- ^
Andreasson, Daniel (2001).
Active languages
(PDF)
(BA thesis). Stockholm University. pp. 18?20. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2 March 2008.
- ^
Nordhoff, Sebastian (2004). Sasse, Hans-Jurgen (ed.).
"Nomen-Verb-Distinktion im Guarani"
(PDF)
.
Arbeitspapier
(in German).
48
. Koln: Universitat zu Koln.
ISSN
1615-1496
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 12 June 2020.
- ^
a
b
Graham, Charles R. (1969).
Guarani Intermediate Course
. Provo: Brigham Young University.
- ^
Blair, Robert; et al. (1968).
Guarani Basic Course: Book 1
. p. 50.
- ^
Pinta, J. (2013). "Lexical strata in loanword phonology: Spanish loans in Guarani". Master's thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (See also
Lexical stratum
.)
- ^
Rodriguez, Yliana (11?12 June 2015).
Vestiges of an Amerindian-European language contact: Guarani loanwords in Uruguayan Spanish
. 18e Rencontres Jeunes Chercheurs en Sciences du Langage. Paris. p. 13. hal-01495095.
- ^
"ipecacuanha"
.
Oxford English Dictionary
(Online ed.).
Oxford University Press
.
(Subscription or
participating institution membership
required.)
- ^
"Guarani language, alphabet and pronunciation"
. Omniglot.com
. Retrieved
26 August
2013
.
- ^
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"
.
United Nations
.
- ^
"Biblia en guarani es incluida oficialmente en el Vaticano"
[Guarani Bible officially included in the Vatican].
Ultima Hora
(in Spanish). 23 October 2012. Archived from
the original
on 27 October 2012.
- ^
"Jehovah's Witnesses Release New World Translation in Guarani"
.
jw.org
. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 20 August 2019.
- ^
"¿Orekopa umi testigo de Jehova ibiblia tee?"
[Do Jehovah's Witnesses have their own Bible?].
jw.org
(in Guarani). Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.
- ^
"Nandejara Ne?? La Biblia"
.
jw.org
. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- de Carvalho, Fernando O. (2022). "A new sound change for Guarani(an): glottal prothesis, internal classification, and the explanation of synchronic irregularities".
Folia Linguistica
.
56
(43?s1): 263?288.
doi
:
10.1515/flin-2022-2026
.
S2CID
249549872
.
External links
[
edit
]
Resources
[
edit
]
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