1987 October storm in Western Europe
The
great storm of 1987
was a violent
extratropical cyclone
that occurred on the night of 15?16 October, with hurricane-force winds causing casualties in the
United Kingdom
,
France
, and the
Channel Islands
as a severe depression in the
Bay of Biscay
moved northeast. Among the most damaged areas were
Greater London
,
Kent
, the
East Anglian
coast, the
Home Counties
, the west of
Brittany
, and the
Cotentin Peninsula
of
Normandy
, all of which weathered gusts typically with a
return period
of 1 in 200 years.
[4]
[5]
Forests, parks, roads, and railways were strewn with fallen trees and schools were closed. The British
National Grid
suffered heavy damage, leaving thousands without power. At least 22 people were killed in England and France.
[6]
[3]
The highest measured gust of 135 miles per hour; 217 kilometres per hour (117 kn) was recorded at Pointe Du Roc,
Granville
, France and the highest gust in the UK of 120 mph; 190 km/h (100 kn) was recorded at
Shoreham
,
West Sussex
.
[7]
The storm has been termed a
weather bomb
due to its rapid development.
[8]
That day's weather reports had failed to indicate a storm of such severity, an earlier, correct forecast having been negated by later projections. The apparent suggestion by the BBC's
Michael Fish
of a false alarm is celebrated as a classic gaffe, though he claims he was misquoted.
[9]
As a result of this storm, major improvements were later implemented in atmospheric observation, relevant computer models, and the training of forecasters.
[10]
Development
[
edit
]
On the Sunday before the storm struck, the farmers' forecast had predicted bad weather on the following Thursday or Friday, 15?16 October.
[11]
By midweek, however, guidance from
weather prediction models
was somewhat equivocal. Instead of stormy weather over a considerable part of the UK, the models suggested that severe weather would reach no farther north than the
English Channel
and coastal parts of southern England.
[11]
During the afternoon of 15 October, winds were very light over most parts of the UK. The pressure gradient was slack. A depression was drifting slowly northwards over the North Sea off eastern Scotland. A
trough
lay over England, Wales, and Ireland. Over the
Bay of Biscay
, a depression was developing.
[12]
First warnings
[
edit
]
The first gale warnings for sea areas in the English Channel were issued at 0630 UTC on 15 October and were followed, four hours later, by warnings of severe gales.
[7]
At 1200 UTC on 15 October, the depression, which originated in the Bay of Biscay, was centred near 46° N, 9° W and its depth was 970 hPa (29 inHg). By 1800 UTC, it had moved north-east to about 47° N, 6° W, and deepened to 964 hPa (28.5 inHg).
At 2235 UTC, winds of
Force 10
were forecast. By midnight, the depression was over the western English Channel, and its central pressure was 953 hPa (28.1 inHg). At 0140 on 16 October, warnings of Force 11 were issued. The depression now moved rapidly north-east, filling a little as it did, reaching the Humber Estuary at about 0530 UTC, by which time its central pressure was 959 hectopascals (28.3 inHg). Dramatic increases in temperature were associated with the passage of the storm's warm front.
In some sea areas, warnings of severe weather were both timely and adequate, although forecasts for land areas left much to be desired.
During the evening of 15 October, radio and TV forecasts mentioned strong winds, but indicated that heavy rain would be the main feature, rather than wind. By the time most people went to bed, exceptionally strong winds had not been mentioned in national radio and TV weather broadcasts.
Warnings of severe weather had been issued, however, to various agencies and emergency authorities, including the
London Fire Brigade
. Perhaps the most important warning was issued by the
Met Office
to the
Ministry of Defence
(MoD) at 0135 UTC, 16 October. It warned that the anticipated consequences of the storm were such that civil authorities might need to call on assistance from the military.
Winds
[
edit
]
A highest gust of 220 km/h; 137 mph (119 kn) is estimated from satellite data at
Quimper
, Brittany, with the highest measured gust at 217 km/h; 135 mph (117 kn) at Pointe du Roc,
Granville
, Normandy.
[3]
In south-east England, where the greatest damage occurred, gusts of 130 km/h; 81 mph (70 kn) or more were recorded continually for three or four consecutive hours.
During this time, the wind veered from southerly to south-westerly. To the north-west of this region, there were two maxima in gust speeds, separated by a period of lower wind speeds. During the first period, the wind direction was southerly. During the latter, it was south-westerly. Damage patterns in south-east England suggested that tornadoes accompanied the storm.
In the UK, winds at
Shoreham-by-Sea
, Sussex reached 190 km/h; 120 mph (100 kn) before the
anemometer
failed.
[3]
[13]
[14]
Many anemometers were reliant on mains power, and ceased recording as the south east of the United Kingdom was blacked-out by power cuts, thus losing much valuable data.
[12]
Winds with an estimated 200-year
return period
hit the counties of Kent, Sussex, Berkshire, Hampshire, and along the coastal strip of Essex, Suffolk, and South Eastern Norfolk.
[12]
North of a line from
Portland Bill
, Dorset to
Cromer
, Norfolk the return period of the respective gusts were under 10 years.
[12]
Sustained winds speeds greater than 121 km/h (75 mph) were recorded for over an hour in southern Britain.
[15]
According to the
Beaufort scale
of wind intensities, this
storm
had winds of hurricane force 12 (117 km/h [73 mph] or greater); as the term
hurricane
refers to
tropical cyclones
originating in the North Atlantic or North Pacific, the descriptor "great storm" has tended to be reserved for those storms in recent years reaching this velocity. Hurricanes have a very different wind profile and distribution from storms, and significantly higher precipitation levels.
Impact
[
edit
]
United Kingdom
[
edit
]
The storm made landfall in
Cornwall
, and tracked north-east towards
Devon
and then over the
Midlands
, going out to sea via
The Wash
. The strongest gusts, of up to 100
knots
(190 km/h; 120 mph), were recorded along the south-eastern edge of the storm, hitting mainly
Berkshire
,
Hampshire
,
Sussex
,
Essex
, and
Kent
. The
Royal Sovereign lighthouse
6 miles (9.7 km) off
Eastbourne
recorded the highest hourly-mean wind speed in the UK on its instruments at 75 kn (139 km/h; 86 mph).
[7]
The
counties
of
Dorset
[16]
and
Surrey
were also heavily affected.
[17]
The storm caused substantial damage over much of England, felling an estimated 15 million trees
[18]
(including six of the seven eponymous oaks in
Sevenoaks
,
[19]
historic specimens in
Kew Gardens
,
Wakehurst Place
,
Nymans
Garden,
Hyde Park
, London and
Scotney Castle
[20]
and most of the trees making up
Chanctonbury Ring
). At
Bedgebury National Pinetum
, Kent almost a quarter of the trees were brought down.
[21]
[22]
There have been many claims that the damage to forestry was made worse by broadleaf trees still being in leaf at the time of the storm, though this was not borne out by an analysis by the
Forestry Commission
.
[23]
Fallen trees blocked roads and railways and left widespread structural damage primarily to windows and roofs. Several hundred thousand people were left without power, not fully restored until more than two weeks later. Local electric utility officials later said they lost more wires in the storm than in the preceding decade. At sea, as well as many
small boats
being wrecked, a
Sealink
cross-channel ferry, the
MV
Hengist
, was driven ashore at
Folkestone
and the bulk carrier MV
Sumnea
capsized at
Dover
, Kent.
[24]
The
Radio Caroline
ship
MV
Ross Revenge
weathered the storm in the north sea, being one of the few ships to be in the North Sea during the storm; it being a radio ship, it also provided radio broadcasts to thousands while most stations were offline.
[25]
The National Grid sustained heavy damage during the event, as crashing cables short-circuited, which in some cases overheated the main system. Its headquarters faced the choice of keeping the grid online to help London as the storm approached but risk an incremental system breakdown, failure and burnout, or to shut down most of South East England including London and avert that risk. The headquarters made the decision, the first one like it since before
World War II
: to shut down the South East power systems to maintain the network as soon as signs of overheating began.
[26]
At
Clayton
,
West Sussex
, one of the village's recently restored
windmills
,
Jill
, sustained severe damage to its mechanisms and caught fire during the storm. The mill's brakes had been applied prior to the storm's arrival, but the high winds were able to rotate the sails and overcome the brakes, creating friction which set the mill's antique timbers on fire. Members of the Jack and Jill Windmills Society were able to put the fire out, carrying water up the hill to douse the flames.
[27]
In London, many of the
trees lining streets
, particularly
plane trees
, were blown down overnight, blocking roads and crushing parked cars. Building construction scaffolding and billboards collapsed in many places, and many buildings were damaged. The following morning, the BBC's Current Affairs Production Centre at the former
Lime Grove Studios
in Shepherd's Bush, was unable to function due to a power failure ?
ITV
's
TV-am
and
BBC1
's
Breakfast Time
programmes were broadcast from different emergency facilities in emergency formats. TV-am broadcast from
Thames Television
's Euston Road studios, while BBC newsreader
Nicholas Witchell
had to broadcast from the BBC1 continuity studio at
BBC Television Centre
, with the wall decorations used for
Children's BBC
hastily taken down. Much of the
public transport
in the capital was not functioning, and people were advised against trying to go to work. TV-am host
Anne Diamond
did go back to the regular TV-am studio with reporter
Kay Burley
, whilst
Richard Keys
remained in the Thames Television studio in case the power supply situation became even worse, and indeed, power did go back down at around 8:15 am.
France
[
edit
]
The
departements
of
Finistere
,
Morbihan
,
Cotes-d'Armor
, and
Ille-et-Vilaine
in Brittany, and the
Cotentin Peninsula
(
Manche
and part of
Calvados
) in
Normandy
were the areas in France most affected by the storm, which followed a line from Morbihan and Rennes to Deauville.
[28]
1.79 million homes were left without electricity supply and water, and a quarter of Brittany's forest was destroyed. The total damage was estimated at
?
23 billion.
Meteo France
announced "
une petite tempete en provenance des Acores
" (a little storm coming in from the Azores), which reached Brittany's coast at about 18:00, later than expected. This depression caused little damage, with only 50 to 60 km/h (31 to 37 mph; 27 to 32 kn) winds. A much deeper depression hit
Ushant
on the extreme western tip of Brittany at midnight. It was measured at 948 mbar (28.0 inHg) at the
Brest
-Guipavas weather station, the lowest reading in its records dating back to 1945.
[28]
Weather stations on the coast at
pointe du Raz
,
pointe Saint-Mathieu
and
Penmarch
gave no readings, as they were damaged by the high winds. The wind speed measured at Brest was 148 km/h (92 mph; 80 kn). The centre of the storm crossed Brittany from
Penmarch
to
Saint-Brieuc
at 110 km/h (68 mph; 59 kn), with gusts of wind up to 187 km/h (116 mph; 101 kn) at
Quimper
, 200 km/h (120 mph; 110 kn) at Ushant, and 220 km/h (140 mph; 120 kn) at la pointe de Penmarch and
Granville
. Waves were measured at 16 m (52 ft) off Ushant and
Belle Ile
.
[28]
Similar strength storms in France since 1960:
- Tempete Vivian in 1990 (generally milder)
- Cyclones Lothar and Martin
in December 1999, which claimed 140 lives, equally severe in Germany, more southern neighbouring countries also saw multiple deaths.
- Cyclone Klaus
which struck worse southern France and northern Spain in 2009 and claimed 26 lives.
The church at
Concarneau
was damaged but never rebuilt, and was finally demolished a few years later.
The
MS
Herald of Free Enterprise
was caught in the storm off
Cape Finisterre
as it was making its way for scrapping in Taiwan. The ship was cast adrift after its tow rope parted, finally resuming its journey on 19 October 1987.
[29]
Aftermath
[
edit
]
The storm cost the insurance industry £2 billion, making it the second most expensive UK weather event on record to insurers after the
Burns' Day Storm
of 1990.
[30]
Peak wind velocities were in the early hours of the morning, which may have helped reduce the death toll.
The storm hit the
Isle of Wight
at 02:00.
Shanklin Pier
, a central landmark in the seaside resort of
Shanklin
on the south-east coast of the island, was broken into three pieces as a result of mountainous waves in
Sandown Bay
that struck the structure. Plans to rebuild the pier were soon abandoned as the company supervising the pier's refurbishment prior to the storm went bankrupt, and the rest of the pier was demolished by contractors shortly afterwards. A monument now stands in front of what used to be the pier entrance.
A great deal of effort and money was put into the post-storm clean-up of forests and wooded areas. The writer
Oliver Rackham
and the charity
Common Ground
were active in trying to prevent unnecessary destruction of trees which, although fallen, were still living.
[31]
[32]
Some landowners, such as the
National Trust
, did not attempt complete clearing and replanting, realising that there was a unique opportunity to study the patterns of natural regeneration after such an event.
[33]
A number of
wild boar
may have escaped from captivity during the storm, after enclosures were damaged by falling trees. These boar have since bred and established populations in woods across southern England.
[34]
A more positive aspect could be found among some British gardeners; as Heather Angel wrote in the
Royal Horticultural Society
's
Journal
:
In some places this natural disaster has resulted in splendid vistas- views long since forgotten by some and never before seen by a whole new generation. Because of gaps left by fallen trees, visitors to
Arundel Castle
, the ancestral home of the Dukes of Norfolk, can now look out over the picturesque town... At the renowned woodland rhododendron garden at
Leonardslee
, Sussex, the gale... opened magnificent views by removing about a thousand trees which owner Robin Loder said he would never have had the courage to thin out himself.
[35]
Criticism of the Met Office
[
edit
]
The
Met Office
was severely criticised by most of the national press for failing to forecast the storm correctly.
[11]
The Met Office conducted an internal inquiry, scrutinised by two independent assessors, and a number of recommendations were made. Chiefly, observational coverage of the atmosphere over the ocean to the south and west of the UK was improved by increasing the quality and quantity of observations from ships, aircraft, buoys and satellites. Continued refinements were made to the computer models used in forecasting, and changes were made in the training of forecasters. In addition, reforms in the way the Met Office reports warnings of severe weather were implemented, leading to substantially more warnings being issued in the future. Further deployment of improved tracking devices and improvements in the computer model simulations were supported by the purchase of an additional
Cray
supercomputer
. Warnings for the
Burns' Day Storm
just over two years later were accurate and on time, although the model forecast hinged on observations from two ships in the Atlantic near the developing storm the day before it reached the UK.
[36]
BBC
meteorologist
Michael Fish
drew particular criticism for reporting several hours before the storm hit:
Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.
[37]
Fish has subsequently claimed that his comments about a hurricane had nothing to do with the UK; they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm. According to Fish, the woman in question was actually a colleague's mother who was about to go on holiday in the Caribbean, and had called regarding
Hurricane Floyd
to see if it would be safe to travel.
[38]
Fish went on to warn viewers that it would be "very windy" across the south of England, but predicted that the storm would move further south along the
English Channel
and the British mainland would escape the worst effects. The remainder of his warning has frequently been left out when this forecast has been repeated on television, which only
adds to the public's misconception
[
citation needed
]
of that day's forecasting. His analysis has been defended by weather experts. In particular, the lack of a
weather ship
in the
Southwest Approaches
, due to Met Office cutbacks,
[39]
meant the only manner of tracking the storm was by using
satellite
data, as
automatic buoys
had not been deployed at the time.
Ironically, earlier forecasts as far back as the preceding weekend had correctly identified that gale-force winds would affect Southern England. However, later runs of the model had indicated a more southerly track for the low pressure system, incorrectly indicating that the strongest winds would be confined to Northern and Central France. The French meteorological office used a different computer weather model to the British, and the French model proved more accurate in predicting the severity of the storm in the Channel.
The French meteorological service did correctly predict and warn for the storm and its intensity, but it might have been otherwise. Indeed, the
ECMWF
model forecast from 14 October 12 UTC failed to predict the strong winds and the storm position (although previous runs were closer to reality), and this could have led to inadequate warnings. This unusual inconsistency of ECMWF could have been a
data assimilation
issue, or came from poor data. In contrast, the French large scale model EMERAUDE made better predictions, while still underestimating the winds. It is recognised that without the experience of the forecasters, the exceptional aspects of the storm would have been missed.
[40]
In the wake of the storm, the Met Office set up the
National Severe Weather Warning Service
.
[10]
It has been said
[41]
that as 15?16 October 1987 approached, shipping weather forecasts warned of storm movements in the North Atlantic, with the result that ships stayed away from North Atlantic storm tracks, depriving North Atlantic meteorology of a major necessary source of weather report data.
New understandings
[
edit
]
Following the storm, meteorologists at the
University of Reading
led by Professor
Keith Browning
developed the
sting jet
concept. During reanalysis of the storm they identified a
mesoscale
flow where the most damaging winds were shown to be emanating from the evaporating tip of the hooked cloud head on the southern flank of the cyclone. This cloud, hooked like a scorpion's tail, gives the wind region its name the "sting jet".
[13]
[42]
Climatological context
[
edit
]
It is sometimes claimed that this storm was the worst since the
Great Storm of 1703
,
[10]
[43]
[44]
but this has been challenged as ignoring storms outside the south-east of England.
[4]
[5]
Storms of this strength regularly form over the North Atlantic, where they typically track to the north of Scotland. Storms of such a strength have a
return period
of 30 to 40 years.
[3]
The unusual aspect of the storm was that it struck the densely populated southeast of England.
[4]
[5]
That winds in the South East had return periods of 1 in 200 years does not mean the winds of this strength occur once every 200 years, but that the winds have a 0.5% probability of happening in a given year.
[Note 1]
Following this storm 1.3 million incidents of damage were reported, which is only exceeded by the
Gale of January 1976
where destruction covered a wider area of the UK, with 1.5 million incidents of damage reported.
[2]
The
Burns' Day storm
hit the United Kingdom in January 1990, less than three years later and with comparable intensity. The
Great Storm of 1968
(Hurricane Low Q) had crossed Great Britain between the Pennines and Perthshire with the highest-ever recorded peak wind speeds (134 mph). The 1968 storm, for which no warning was given, devastated agriculture and 5% of forestry in Scotland, toppled shipbuilding cranes on the Clyde, and left almost 2000 people homeless in the
Central Belt
.
Wider impacts
[
edit
]
Black Monday
[
edit
]
Following the storm, few dealers made it to their desks, and
stock market
trading was suspended twice; the market closed early at 12:30. The disruption meant
the City
was unable to respond to the late trading at the beginning of the
Wall Street
fall-out on Friday 16 October, when the
Dow Jones Industrial Average
recorded its greatest-ever one-day slide at the time, a fall of 108.36. City traders and investors spent the weekend, 17?18 October, repairing damaged gardens in between trying to guess market reaction and assessing the damage.
[45]
19 October,
Black Monday
, was memorable as being the first business day of the London markets after the Great Storm.
Cultural references
[
edit
]
- The storm features in an important scene near the end of
Possession: A Romance
, the
Booker Prize
-winning novel by
A. S. Byatt
.
- The novelist
W. G. Sebald
recalls the storm towards the end of
The Rings of Saturn
, as he is visiting
Ditchingham Hall
in Norfolk, where the storm did great damage to estate trees.
- The BBC drama
Our Friends in the North
features a character, Eddie Wells MP, dying of a heart attack as the storm hits Westminster.
- The storm and its aftermath acts as the climax to
Tim Lott
's 2002 novel
Rumours of a Hurricane
.
[46]
- Richard Poole
repeatedly mentions the storm in the
Death in Paradise
episode "
A Stormy Occurrence
".
[47]
- Michael Fish's controversial weather forecast featured in the London
2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
,
[9]
playing on the perceived British love of talking about the weather.
- The BBC drama
New Tricks
, series 1, episode 1 (aired 1 April 2004) is based on a murder that occurred just before the storm, which had gone unsolved because the storm had "messed up" the evidence.
- The narrator in the novel
Max Gate
by
Damien Wilkins
is telling the story, set in 1928, from the vantage point of 1987, in the aftermath of the storm.
- The main character in the 1994 novel by Tim Binding,
In the Kingdom of Air
, is a BBC meteorologist. The novel takes place during the Great Storm of 1987.
[48]
- In a section of
Zadie Smith's
2000 novel
White Teeth
, two of the main characters' houses are destroyed by the storm.
- In the 2019 film
Blinded by the Light
, the protagonist listens to
Bruce Springsteen
for the first time during the Great Storm of 1987. Michael Fish's forecast is featured immediately before.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Common Misconceptions, Part 1 - Return Periods
[49]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
David Braine (28 October 2014).
"The 1987 Great Storm"
. BBC Cornwall
. Retrieved
20 June
2018
.
- ^
a
b
United Kingdom Met Office (2007).
"The Great Storm of 1987"
(PDF)
. Risk Management Solutions
. Retrieved
2 August
2009
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
"The Great Storm of 1987"
. Wayback Machine: Met Office. Archived from
the original
on 7 September 2008
. Retrieved
6 January
2013
.
- ^
a
b
c
Vidal, John (16 October 2012).
"Sting jet technology means no more hurricane mishaps for Michael Fish"
.
The Guardian
. Retrieved
8 December
2012
.
- ^
a
b
c
"How did the 'Great Storm' of 1987 develop?"
.
Met Office News Blog
. 10 October 2012
. Retrieved
8 December
2012
.
- ^
Lennon, Sam (15 October 2022).
"The Great Storm of 1987: Remembering devastating impact on Kent on 35th anniversary"
.
www.kentonline.co.uk
. KM Group
. Retrieved
6 September
2023
.
- ^
a
b
c
"The Great Storm of 1987"
.
Met Office
. Retrieved
19 February
2022
.
- ^
"Ophelia's strange path"
.
The Economist
. 16 October 2017.
- ^
a
b
"Great Storm of 1987: Michael Fish's 'white lie'
"
.
BBC News
. 15 October 2012
. Retrieved
8 December
2012
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Lessons learned from Great Storm"
.
BBC News
. 14 October 2007
. Retrieved
4 May
2010
.
- ^
a
b
c
Houghton, J. T. (1988). "The Storm, The Media and the Enquiry".
Weather
.
43
(3): 67?70.
Bibcode
:
1988Wthr...43...67H
.
doi
:
10.1002/j.1477-8696.1988.tb03883.x
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Burt, S. D.; Mansfield, D. A. (1988). "The Great Storm of 15?16 October 1987".
Weather
.
43
(3): 90?108.
Bibcode
:
1988Wthr...43...90B
.
doi
:
10.1002/j.1477-8696.1988.tb03885.x
.
- ^
a
b
"The 1987 Great Storm ? What is a Sting Jet?"
. Met Office
. Retrieved
27 February
2013
.
- ^
"The Sting Jet Forecasting the damaging winds in European Cyclones"
(PDF)
. Met Office. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 15 July 2015
. Retrieved
27 February
2013
.
- ^
David Braine (12 December 2007).
"The 1987 Great Storm"
.
BBC
. Retrieved
25 August
2017
.
- ^
"PICTURES: How the Great Storm of 1987 devastated Dorset"
.
Bournemouth Echo
. 15 October 2020
. Retrieved
15 July
2022
.
- ^
Kondonis, Dimitri (15 October 2016).
"29 years on, Get Surrey looks back at the 1987 Great Storm"
.
SurreyLive
. Retrieved
15 July
2022
.
- ^
Richardson, Tim (12 October 2007).
"The Great Storm of 1987 remembered"
.
The Daily Telegraph
. Retrieved
6 May
2010
.
- ^
"A brief history of Sevenoaks Town"
.
History of Sevenoaks
. Sevenoaks Life. Archived from
the original
on 26 May 2011
. Retrieved
28 July
2008
.
- ^
These much-visited gardens were noted in an editorial in
Horticulture: The Magazine of American Gardening
, November 1988:13.
- ^
"Summary of the Bedgebury Forest archaeological survey"
.
Bedgebury Forest archaeological survey
.
Forestry Commission
. Archived from
the original
on 3 November 2009
. Retrieved
1 October
2009
.
- ^
"History of Bedgebury National Pinetum"
.
Forestry Commission
. Retrieved
1 October
2009
.
- ^
Quine, C. P. (March 1988). "Damage to Trees and Woodlands in the Storm of 15-16 October 1987".
Weather
.
43
(3): 114?118.
Bibcode
:
1988Wthr...43..114Q
.
doi
:
10.1002/j.1477-8696.1988.tb03888.x
.
- ^
Tony Dawe, Robert Matthews and Nicholas Wood (17 October 1987). "Wasted warning of the storm".
The Times
. No. 62902. London. col A-H, p. 1.
- ^
Conway, Steve (2004).
"The day of the great hurricane"
.
soundscapes
. volume 7.
- ^
Burt, S. D.; Mansfield, D. A.
"The Great Storm of 15-16 October 1987, pp 108"
(PDF)
.
MetLink.org
. Royal Meteorological Society
. Retrieved
3 May
2019
.
- ^
"Jack and Jill Windmills Society"
.
www.jillwindmill.org.uk
. Retrieved
15 February
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
"L'Ouest balaye par un ouragan devastateur (the West swept up by a devastating hurricane)"
(in French). Meteo France (government organisation). 23 February 2024.
- ^
Gripper, Ann (25 October 2013).
"UK weather: A look back at the devastating Great Storm of 1987 that nobody predicted"
.
Daily Mirror
. Retrieved
30 May
2015
.
- ^
"UK storm payout 'may hit £350m'
"
.
BBC News
.
bbc.co.uk
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Watkins, Jack (13 October 2007).
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[
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Oliver Rackham,
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The Meteorological Magazine
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BBC Weather
. bbc.co.uk. Archived from
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.
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"Factfile: The 1987 Great Storm"
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Gribben, Roland (18 October 2012).
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Tinline, Phil (26 February 2005).
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.
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.
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. Ronjie.com Civil Engineering Blog
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2013
.
External links
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